Intro to Counseling Psych Exam 2

Why are counseling theories important?

Help to give professionals a framework to conduct therapy with and establish a theoretical orientation

Theoretical orientation

A counselor’s philosophy about how problems develop and how these problems can be addressed through counseling. This orientation not only guides how a psychologist views their client’s problems, but also what skills, techniques, and interventions they may use to address those problems.

Four main questions addressed in theoretical orientation

1. How do problems develop? Or how are problems addressed?

2. How does change occur?

3. What is the role of the therapist?

4. What is the role of the client?

Sigmund Freud

Responsible for the development of psychoanalysis and it’s core concepts as well as being the father of talk therapy

Freud’s View of Human Nature

It is deterministic, stage-based, and is rooted in early childhood

Structured Model of Personality

Freud’s belief that there were three systems (Id, Ego, and Superego) that worked together to create one’s personality

Id

Basic instincts, operates on pleasure principle, and functions in one’s unconcious

Ego

Instincts vs external environment that mediates Id-Superego relationship and operates as a reality principle

Superego

The last of the three to develop that controls right vs wrong and good vs bad. It represents the ideal self and passes down traditions from parents to children, operating as a moral principle.

Conscious level

Attuned to an awareness of the outside world

Preconscious level

Holds thoughts and feelings on the edge of awareness so we can bring them into consciousness

Unconscious Level

Holds fears, violent motives, irrational wishes, immoral urges, and other suppressed emotions, called the “secrets of the soul”

Psychosexual stages

Believed that unresolved conflicts or difficulties during any of these stages may lead to personality traits or issues that reflect that stage

Psychosocial stages of development

Developed by Erik Erikson, this theory holds that there are basic social and psychosocial tasks to be mastered from infancy through older adulthood

How do problems develop through psychodynamic theory?

Conflict between the Id, Ego, and superego results in anxiety.

Anxiety

The feeling of dread that results from repressed fears, memories, desires, and experiences that emerge to the surface of awareness, as well as the overuse of defense mechanisms

Psychodynamic theory

Focuses on how unconscious processes things like early childhood experiences, past relationships that shape current behavior, emotions, and personality.

Three types of anxiety

Reality anxiety, neurotic anxiety, moral anxiety

Defense mechanisms

Normal behaviors that operate on an unconscious level and tend to deny or distort reality. They help individuals cope with anxiety and prevent the ego from being overwhelmed and can be adaptive.

How does change occur in psychodynamic theory?

By strengthening the ego and developing new insight by identifying and correcting old, non-functioning patterns of behavior

Psychoanalytic phenomena

Transference, countertransference, and resistance

Transference

Projection (BY THE CLIENT) of the past significant others or significant figures onto the therapist

Countertransference

Projection (BY THE THERAPIST) of feelings and emotions onto the client

Resistance

Anything that works against the progress of therapy and prevents production of unconscious material

Psychoanalytic techniques

Maintaining the analytic framework, free association, analysis of both resistance and transference, interpretation, and dream interpretation (or dream analysis)

Free association

The client reports immediately without censoring any feelings or thoughts, allowing for them to express and explore unconscious wishes, fantasies, conflicts, and motivations

Analysis of resistance

Helping the client become aware of the reasons for their resistance in discussing certain topics, including exploring the anticipated anxiety in personal disclosure.

Analysis of transference

The therapist analyzes how the client is projecting onto them and how that relates to the client’s development and functioning in relationships. This can be used to explore interpersonal patterns and make the client’s internal processes.

Interpretation

The therapist points out, explains, and teaches the meanings of whatever is revealed. This is used to help facilitate insight.

Dream Analysis

Freud believed that dreams are the “royal road” to the unconscious. Dreams cannot be understood from the content on the surface (manifest content), but rather one must look underneath the surface to find the real meaning (latent content). He believed that all dreams are wish fulfillments based on unconscious wishes (a mix of day residue with universal dream symbols).

Therapist’s role in psychodynamic theory

The therapist’s role is to understand the client’s motives and identify recurrent maladaptive patterns. They also interpret thoughts, feelings, and behaviors to help clients work through unresolved conflict and gain insight. This teaches clients how current behaviors relate to the past and helps uncover unconscious material. Therapists function as experts in the relationship, taking a neutral, anonymous stance.

Client’s role in psychodynamic theory

The client’s role is to be thoughtful and introspective and be relatively passive.

Pros of psychoanalytic

First comprehensive theory of personality. It recognizes the importance of early childhood/past experiences and the importance of family relationships. It coined the term “unconscious,” and concepts have been “borrowed” by other theories.

Cons of psychoanalytic

Concepts are difficult to research and support empirically. The process can be expensive and time-consuming. It can overemphasize the role of insight, be less useful for crisis counseling, and minimize the role of the environment.

Limitations from a diversity perspective in psychodynamic theory

Perceived as being based on upper and middle-class values, the cost of treatment is prohibitive for many people. Cultural expectations may lead clients to want more direction and structure from the professional, more concerned with long-term personality reconstruction than with short-term problem solving. It fails to address social, cultural, and political factors that may be oppressive to clients.

Contemporary trends in psychodynamic therapy

Works within a time-limited therapy (~10-25 sessions). It targets one or more specific interpersonal problems and assumes a less neutral stance. There is a larger emphasis on the alliance and empathy in the therapeutic relationship, which uses skills such as interpretation and immediacy more than other therapies.

Time-limited dynamic psychotherapy

Much briefer than traditional psychoanalysis. Early relationships are formative. May form the basis of maladaptive patterns, problems develop through a cyclical maladaptive pattern, and change occurs through breaking this CMP (insight + corrective experience)

Therapist role in contemporary psychodynamic therapy

The therapist’s role is to be not a neutral observer of the client, monitor reaction to the client while avoiding being pulled into CMP, and using countertransference as information

Client role in contemporary psychodynamic therapy

The client’s role is to take a more active role and is collaborative, be open to interpersonal feedback from the therapist, and be willing to talk about their relationship, also applies what they learn in therapy to outside relationships.

Carl Rodgers

The founder of person-centered therapy, as a reaction against psychoanalytic theory, assumed that “the therapist knows best” and focuses on problems over persons.

Humanistic theorists

Believe in free will, emphasize the uniqueness of each individual, believe that humans strive for an upper level of capabilities, humans eek the frontiers of creativity and the highest reaches of consciousness and wisdom, and are optimistic about humanity and the future.

Abraham Maslow

Created the hierarchy of needs, theorized that some needs take precedence of others like taking care of thirst over hunger.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Theorizes that under the right conditions, people can move towards constructive change, humans have the innate capacity for growth, and humans innately gravitate towards self-actualization

View of Human Nature

Human beings possess goodness and the desire to become fully functioning. Humans innately strive to achieve self-actualization, and that we do not behave irrationally, we move with ordered complexity towards our goals

Self theory

A person’s perception of self and environment is reality for that person, and given the right conditions, individuals strive to move forward and fulfill their creative nature.

How do problems develop in person-centered therapy

Through congruent and incongruent issues with one’s actual and ideal self.

Incongruent

When one’s actual self is different from their ideal self (very little overlap between the two) and in this case, reaching self-actualization is difficult

Congruent

When one’s actual self is similar to their ideal self (more overlap between the two), in this case, self-actualization is possible.

Conditions of worth

Conditions we think we must satisfy in order to be worthy of love. Messages can come from many different places. It can play a part in one’s self-image, and problems begin to develop when we give into conditions of worth (who others think we should be) rather than being who you really are.

6 conditions necessary for change

Client incongruence, therapist unconditional positive regard, therapist-client psychological contact, therapist congruence, therapist empathic understanding, and client perception

How does change occur in person centered therapy?

Congruence (genuineness) and unconditional positive regard.

Congruence (genuineness)

The therapist is genuine and real within the therapeutic relationship

Unconditional positive regard

Non-judgmental stance and warm acceptance towards clients under any conditions for acceptance

What is the main goal of humanistic theory?

To provide a climate of safety and trust that facilitates positive, self-directed growth

What are other goals for person centered therapy?

To enable clients to be open to experience, to trust themselves, to create a willingness to keep growing, and to develop an internal source of evaluation

Therapist’s role in person centered therapy

The therapist’s role is to serve as a role model of how a fully functioning individual relates to others. They support the client’s growth by creating the three facilitative conditions and show support through basic and advanced counseling skills. They must be non-directive, which means the therapist does to seek specific goals for the client.

Role of the client in person centered therapy

The role of the client is to take a lead in the change process and take responsibility for the therapy outcomes.

Pros of person centered therapy

This therapy provides excellent descriptions of effective therapeutic relationships. It helps promote client responsibility and shift the focus from techniques to therapeutic relationships. It is useful for a wide range of clients and problems of different age groups.

Cons of person centered therapy

There is an overemphasis on the therapeutic relationship, in turn giving clients too much responsibility. There is an overemphasis on individualistic, Western concepts, and it is very suitable for only well-functioning clients. Cliens may prefer more structured, directive counseling.

Feminist theory of counseling

An integrative model of psychotherapy practice informed by feminist political philosophies and analysis. It emerged from grassroots movements, it’s grounded in multicultural feminist scholarship, and draws attention on power dynamic in and outside of therapy.

What are the two major elements of feminist theory?

The person is political and an egalitarian therapeutic relationship

Sex

The classification of people as male of female based on some biological characteristics

Intersex

An individual whose combination of chromosomes, hormones, internal and external sex organs, etc. differs from the two traditionally prescribed patterns of male or female

Gender

Socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities, and attributes. Assumptions often include that AMAB→ boy/man and AFAB→ girl/woman

Cisgender

A person whose gender identity aligns with their sex assigned at birth

Transgender

A person who identifies as a gender other than their sex assigned at birth

Sexism

A system of attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors that devalue omen and femininity while privileging men and masculinity

Consciousness

A marginalized person’s awareness that their mistreatment is not because of their personal failings, but occurs because they are a member of an oppressed and disenfranchised group(s)

Second wave of feminist movement (1960-70s)

Focused on work, reproductive rights, domestic and sexual violence, and other issues. There was development of women-centered services and APA divisions.

What happened in the 1970s for feminist therapy?

The American Psychological Association (APA) began to incorporate feminism

What happened in the 1980s for feminist therapy?

There was an exclusion of women of color/minority women in feminism, causing a movement away from androcentric theories, a reaction to the second wave, and a lack of attention to the diverse experiences of women.

What happened in the 1990s for feminist therapy?

Feminist therapists and researchers were called for an addressing of broader diversity issues. This caused a re-focusing on diversity and multiple identities.

Modern feminist therapy

Emphasizes the importance of diversity, social activism, and attention to the interdependence of personal and social identities.

What are assumptions about human nature in feminist therapy?

We exist in a political and social system that is male-dominated (patriarchy). For women to experience change in their personal lives, political changes must occur. Gender schemas/sex-role stereotypes limit this development.

Key principles of feminist therapy

Empowerment and strengths-based, eradicate oppression, clients are experts in their own life, and commitment to social change.

How do problems develop in feminist therapy?

Problems develop within interpersonal, social, and economic contexts. The origin of problems is often outside of the individual (e.g. patriarchy, oppression), internalization of oppression and/or socially prescribed rules of behaviors, and distress/dysfunction vs psychopathology. Problems arise when coping strategies are no longer working in the current context.

How does change occur in feminist therapy?

Through empowerment and integrative techniques

Empowerment of the client

A powerful client understands and thinks critically about themselves and others. They are effective in their own life and relationships and consciously exercise choice by understanding how power functions in society and their own life.

Integrative techniques

Incorporates techniques from other theories.

Feminist approaches for integrative techniques

Identify and label social location (e.g., gender role analysis), political analysis, focusing on the client’s strengths, and self disclosure.

Gender-role analysis

Helps clients understand impacts of gender-role expectations in their lives.

Power analysis and intervention

Emphasis on the power differences between men and women in society

Bibliotherapy

Reading assignments that address issues

Reframing

Changing the frame of reference for looking at an individual’s behavior

Self-disclosure

Help equalize the therapeutic relationship and provide modeling for the client

Assertiveness training

Women become aware of interpersonal rights and implement changes in daily life

Relabeling

Changing the label applied to the client’s behavioral characteristics

Social action

Encourages clients to embrace social activism

Consciousness and empowerment model

First, assess the situation, client strengths, client resources, and client and societal limitations and boundaries. Then brainstorm possible solutions to the current situation. Next, help the client to choose the best of the possible solutions/goals; make a change plan. Lastly, support the implementation of the plan, then assess success and repeat as necessary.

Egalitarian relationship

Equal value is afforded to all participants in therapy. The therapist is not more important than the client

Roles of the therapist in feminist therapy

The therapist’s role is to recognize and address inherent power imbalance and earn the client’s trust. They must be accessible, collaborate with clients to create positive change, and help to free clients from roles that have hindered them from achieving their potential.

Pros of feminist therapy

It is intentionally multicultural and acknowledges and normalizes the impact of social forces on mental health and the ability to make positive change. The client acts as the co-expert, and there is a strong orientation to social justice.

Cons of feminist therapy

It is difficult to measure improvement compared to traditional therapies. There is a lack of empirical research. Many clients feel averse to feminist therapy because of the word “feminist”. It can also be culturally biased, so therapists must be careful not ot impose their own values onto the client.

Classical conditioning

Created by Ivan Pavlov. Specific responses are learned or conditioned by pairing a specific stimulus with a response.

4 components of classical conditioning

Unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response

Operant conditioning

Created by BF Skinner. Voluntary behaviors are learned, or conditioned, though consequences

Consequences of operant conditioning

Positive vs. negative, reinforcement vs. punishment

Extinction

Goal is to decrease or eliminate a behavior by withholding reinforcement from a previously reinforced response

Social learning

Created by Albert Bandura. It is reciprocal interactions between an individual’s behavior and environment

Assumptions of behavioral approaches

Attention to overt behaviors. Believes that behavior is learned and can be unlearned and relearned. Emphasis on the here and now was behavior and cognition melding together, and focuses on presenting the problem rather than the underlying issues. There are specific, clearly defined goals. The role of the counselor is active and directive, causing the therapeutic relationship to be less important. It places a high value on empirical and scientific data.