lab 6 Animal Support, Locomotion, and External Protection

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pt 2

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1
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What challenges do animals face in different environments, and how does this affect movement and body support?

  • Aquatic animals:

    • Buoyancy helps support the body

    • Must overcome drag when moving through water

  • Terrestrial animals:

    • Must support body weight against gravity

    • Must overcome friction and terrain challenges

  • Amphibious / dual-environment animals:

    • Balance aquatic drag with terrestrial support needs

  • Other challenges for all animals:

    • Protecting body surfaces from abrasion, ions, and predation

Key idea: Animal body support and movement are shaped by the physical properties of their environment.

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What are the animal support systems, and what roles do they play?

Support systems involve:

  • Epithelial layers / epidermis → produce protective layers

  • Fluids in body cavities → hydrostatic support

  • Skeletal muscles → enable movement

  • Connective tissues → fibrous tissue, cartilage, bone

Functions of support systems:

  • Structural support → maintain body shape

  • Anchor for muscles → allow contraction and movement

  • Protection → from predators, pathogens, desiccation, and abrasion

Three basic types of skeletal systems:

  1. Hydrostatic skeleton → fluid-filled cavities provide support

  2. Exoskeleton → external rigid covering (e.g., arthropods)

  3. Endoskeleton → internal rigid support (e.g., vertebrates)

Key idea: Animal support systems integrate structure, protection, and movement in diverse environments.


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What is the role of muscle tissue in animal locomotion, and what are the main types?

Muscle function:

  • Contraction and relaxation of fibers → shortens/lengthens cells

  • Movement roles:

    • Skeletal muscle → locomotion (e.g., swimming, walking)

    • Smooth muscle → moves food through digestive tract

    • Cardiac muscle → pumps blood in heart

  • Antagonistic muscle groups: muscles that work in opposition to control movement

Three types of muscle tissue:

  1. Skeletal → voluntary, striated, moves skeleton

  2. Smooth → involuntary, non-striated, lines internal organs

  3. Cardiac → involuntary, striated, heart contractions

Key idea: All muscle tissue enables movement, and antagonistic pairs allow precise control.

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What is the integument, and how does it provide protection in vertebrates?

Integument = outer protective covering

  • Function:

    • Protects inner tissues from physical damage, predators, and abrasion

  • Vertebrate integument:

    • Epidermis: surface layer → often produces scales, feathers, or hair

    • Dermis: deeper layer → supports epidermis and contains connective tissue, blood vessels, glands

  • Evolutionary significance:

    • Changes in integument are linked to endoskeleton evolution and locomotion adaptations

Key idea: The integument provides physical protection and is integrated with structural and locomotor systems in vertebrates.

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What are the main connective tissues that provide support, and what are their functions?

Connective tissue functions:

  • Bind tissues together

  • Provide structural support

Types of connective tissue involved in support:

  1. Fibrous connective tissue

    • Parallel bundles of collagen fibers

    • Maximizes non-elastic strength

    • Found in tendons and ligaments

  2. Cartilage connective tissue

    • Contains chondrocytes in a rubbery ground substance

    • Flexible cartilage: outer ear, nose, vertebrate embryos, some skeletons

    • Hyaline cartilage: non-fibrous, harder, lines ends of long bones at joints

Key idea: Connective tissues provide strength, flexibility, and support for animal bodies, forming critical parts of the skeleton and joints.

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What is bone connective tissue, and what are hydrostatic skeletons?

Bone connective tissue:

  • Found in endoskeletons and teeth

  • Osteoblasts → deposit collagen matrix + ions → forms hardened bone

  • Structure:

    • Compact bone made of osteons → mineralized rings around a central cavity with blood vessels and nerves

  • Cells:

    • Chondrocytes → cartilage cells

    • Osteocytes → mature bone cells

  • Tendons and ligaments:

    • Tendons → connect muscle to bone

    • Ligaments → connect bone to bone

Hydrostatic skeletons:

  • Fluid-filled compartments of fixed volume

  • Muscle contraction in one area + relaxation in another → changes compartment shape → movement

  • Found in cnidarians (jellyfish, sea anemones)

Key idea:

  • Bone provides rigid support and protection, while hydrostatic skeletons use fluid and muscle interaction for movement.

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How do hydrostatic skeletons function in earthworms, and what are the main types of exoskeletons?

Hydrostatic skeleton in earthworms:

  • Body structure: fluid-filled coelom, thin chitin cuticle, circular & longitudinal muscle layers

  • Chaete (setae): short chitin spines for traction

  • Muscle action:

    • Circular muscles → constrict diameter

    • Longitudinal muscles → shorten body length

  • Locomotion: variation in muscle contraction + hydrostatic pressure in coelomic compartments changes body shape → movement

  • Septa: divide coelom into compartments → local pressure control

Exoskeletons:

  1. Earthworm cuticle: simple, chitinized layer (supports hydrostatic skeleton)

  2. Molluscan shells: calcium carbonate + proteins, secreted by mantle, protects soft body; some reduced/lost

  3. Arthropod exoskeletons: rigid, segmented, chitin + sometimes CaCO₃, provides protection and muscle attachment

Key idea: Hydrostatic skeletons use fluid pressure and muscle contraction for movement, while exoskeletons provide external support and protection.

8
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What are the features of arthropod exoskeletons, and how do they affect locomotion?

Composition:

  • Chitin, proteins, and calcium carbonate, secreted by epidermis

  • Covers the entire body

  • Thickness varies by function:

    • Thin at flexible joints → movement

    • Thick/spiny where protection needed

Diversity & locomotion:

  • Aquatic arthropods (horseshoe crabs, crayfish, lobsters, shrimp) → heavier exoskeletons; water supports body

  • Barnacles → heaviest exoskeleton; sessile (no movement)

  • Terrestrial arthropods (spiders, ticks) → lighter, flexible exoskeletons

  • Insects → lightest exoskeletons for flight

Key idea: The size, shape, and material of the exoskeleton is adapted to each animal’s locomotion strategy

Question: Phyla with both hydrostatic skeletons AND exoskeletons?

  • Example: Annelida (earthworms: hydrostatic + cuticle)

Key idea: Arthropod exoskeletons balance protection, support, and movement, optimized for habitat and behavior.

9
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What are the features of sponge endoskeletons?

Composition:

  • Fibers and spicules made of proteins, calcium carbonate, and silica

  • Embedded in mesohyl → tough but pliable connective tissue-like material

Function:

  • Provides structural support for the sponge body

  • Maintains shape while allowing some flexibility

  • Supports water flow through sponge canals

Key idea: Sponge endoskeletons are internal, rigid yet flexible, using spicules and fibers for support and structure.

10
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What are the features and functions of echinoderm and chordate endoskeletons?

Echinoderm endoskeletons:

  • Composed of calcified plates (ossicles) beneath soft epidermis

  • Flexibility: soft tissue between ossicles allows body wall movement

  • Spines: vary by species, e.g., sea urchins have long spines for predator defense

  • Diversity: sea stars → short spines; sea urchins/sand dollars → ossicles encase body

Chordate endoskeletons:

  • Notochord: internal skeletal rod, precursor to vertebral column

  • Location: ventral to nerve cord (e.g., Amphioxus)

  • Function:

    • Provides internal support

    • Anchors trunk muscles for undulatory swimming

  • Continuous notochord → ancestral condition in jawless fishes

Key idea: Both endoskeletons provide internal support, but echinoderms rely on ossicles + soft tissue, while chordates rely on the notochord for muscular anchoring and locomotion.

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