Paper 3 - Question 3 - Theoretical Knowledge

Generalizability definition

Extent to which the results of a study can be applied beyond the sample and setting used in the study itself

Generalizability in quantitative research

• External validity - ecological validity, population validity

• Construct validity - operationalization of variables

Ecological validity

Extent to which study approximates real life → generalizability to other settings

Population validity

Extent to which study is representative of the sample → generalizability to the target population

Generalizability in qualitative reserach

• Sample-to-population

• Theoretical generalization

• Case-to-case generalization = transferability

Sample-to-population generalizability

application of results to a wider population

Theoretical generalizability

Generalizing results to a broader theory → when data saturation is achieved (further data does not add anything new to the conclusion)

Case-to-case generalizability

transferability → application of findings to a different group of people, setting, or context

Credibility (quantitative)

Internal validity → control of confounding variables adds credibility to research, replicability = more reliable

Credibility (qualitative)

• triangulation

• establishing a rapport

• iterative questioning

• reflexivity

• credibility checks

• thick/rich descriptions

triangulation

triangulation = combining different approaches to collect + interpret data

• method triangulation - combining methods

• data triangulation - using data from a variety of sources

• researcher triangulation - combining observations of different researchers

• theory triangulation - using multiple theories to interpret data

establishing a rapport

building a relationship of trust with participants → prevents demand characteristics

iterative questioning

repetition and rephrasing of questions → deeper investigation of topics

reflexivity

taking biases into account

• epistemological reflexivity - construct of study, limitations and strengths

• considering personal reflexivity - personal beliefs + expectations

credibility checks

confirming accurarcy of collected data with participants prior to publication

thick/rich descriptions

describing behaviour observed in detail → contextual understanding

biases quantitative research (some examples)

• experimenter bias - researcher unintentionally influences participant behaviour

• selection bias - sampling errors

• demand characteristics - participants understand aim of experiment and adapt behaviour accordingly

• instrumentation - instrument measuring DV changes slightly - compromises standardization

biases qualitative

• acquiescence bias - tendency to give positive answer to questions

• social desirability bias - participants behaving a certain way to be liked

• dominant respondant bias - focus group, one participant influences behaviour of others

• sensitivity bias - distorting response for sensitive questions

• confirmation bias - information that confirms prior beliefs sought out by researcher

• leading question bias - wording of a question encourages specific answer

• question order bias - response to one question encourages a specific answer

• biased reporting - some findings not equally reported