Comm 111: Public Speaking - Final

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persuasion

creating, reinforcing, and changing people’s beliefs or actions

artistic proofs

logos, ethos, pathos

logos

evidence and reasoning

ethos

speaker’s credibility

pathos

appeals to emotion

using logos

state and prove your case using evidence

types of evidence

facts, examples, statistics, testimony

types of examples

true examples used to prove, hypothetical examples used to clarify

types of testimony

expert testimony from authority, peer testimony from firsthand experience

components of ethos

good character and trustworthiness, common sense and competence, goodwill and friendliness, dynamism and charisma

types of ethos

prior based on reputation, demonstrated earned through speaking with prepared and competent delivery

dimensions of emotional responses

pleasure and displeasure, arousal and non arousal, dominance and powerlessness

devices of pathos

use of language, nonverbal behavior, visual images, appeals to needs and values

maslow’s hierarchy of needs

physiological, safety, social, self esteem, self-actualization

persuasive speech organization patterns

problem/solution, refutation, monroe’s motivated sequence

problem/solution

lay out the problem’s description, importance, and consequences, then walk through solution description, implementation, and how results will look like

use when the audience knows there is a problem

refutation

identify opposing arguments and explain why it is flawed, starting from the opponent’s weakest to strongest points

use when audience feels skeptical or for controversial topics

monroe’s motivated sequence

five step formula to maximize logical and emotional appeals: gain attention, establish need, satisfaction, visualization, call to action

question of fact

a claim about the truth or falsity of an assertion or an interpretation of facts

question of value

a claim about the worthiness, rightness, or morality of an idea or action

question of policy

a claim about whether a specific action should or should not be taken focused on the future

reasoning

the process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence through explanations and making sense of it

inductive reasoning

reasoning that moves from several particular facts to a general conclusion (specific to general)

deductive reasoning

moves from general to a specific application

casual reasoning

seeks to establish a relationship between between a cause and effect or between events and outcomes (can have multiple causes for an outcome)

analogical reasoning

compares two similar cases and argues that what is true of the first is likely true of the second, where the similarities outweigh the differences

fallacy

error in reasoning

hasty generalization

drawing a broad conclusion based on insufficient or unrepresentative evidence (stereotypes)

false cause

mistakenly assumes that because one event follows another, the first event is the cause of the second (superstition)

red herring

presenting an irrelevant issue to distract from the real issue

ad hominem

attacking your opponent rather than dealing with the issue of dispute

either/or or false dilemma

argues that there are only two options available when more than two exist

bandwagon fallacy

assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable

slippery slope fallacy

relies on the belief that once a course of action is taken, other unavoidable events will inevitably occur

invalid analogy

analogy in which the two cases being compared are not alike and the differences outweigh the similarities

appeal to tradition

assumes that because something has always been done a certain way, it is therefore the best

appeal to novelty

assumes that because something is new, it is therefore better

determining your audience

does the audience agree with your claim and how much do they already know about topic

types of audiences

receptive, neutral, unreceptive

receptive audience

interested in what you have to say and may agree with your opinions

neutral audience

likely has no strong feelings relating to your opinions and may be ambivalent or open to new ideas

unreceptive audience

ideas and beliefs are already established and position is likely opposite of your own

persuading a receptive audience

identify with your audience using emotional appeals and make it easier for the listeners to act

persuading a neutral audience

refer to beliefs many listeners share, relating the topic to the listeners and their families, friends, and loved ones, being realistic about what can be accomplished by the audience

persuading an unreceptive audience

begin with areas of agreement while acknowledging opposing views, ultimately focusing on understanding rather than advocacy of your goal

language

an instrument used as a tool of expression, where the purpose of words is found in their meaning

denotative

an exact literal meaning of a word or phrase

connotative

an additional, subjective meaning of a word or phrase, influenced by associations and emotions

rules for clear language

use familiar, concrete words and eliminate clutter

cluttered speaking

verbal fillers and vocalized pauses, unnecessary words, over abundance of adjectives

imagery

using language to create mental images (metaphor, simile, personification, hyperbole, cliche)

metaphor

implicit comparison that is not literal, used to transfer meaning

simile

an explicit comparison between things using “like” or “as”

personification

giving human characteristics to something not human using anthropomorphism

anthropomorphism

representation of an abstract quality in human form

hyperbole

an exaggerated statement for effect, not to be taken seriously

cliche

an overused expression, where the effect is audience dependent

rhythm

the pattern of sounds during a speech created by the choice and arrangement of words (parallelism, repetition, alliteration, antithesis)

parallelism

the similar arrangement of a pair or series of relating words or phrases

repetition

the reoccurrence of the same word or set of words at the beginning or end of successive clauses or sentences (anaphora, epistrophe, assonance, consonance)

anaphora

the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences

epistrophe

the repetition of a word at the end of successive clauses or sentences

assonance

the repetition of a vowel sound in close adjoining words

consonance

the repetition of a constant sound in close adjoining words

alliteration

repetition of the initial consonant sound of adjoining words

antithesis

the juxtaposition of opposite ideas often in parallel structure

speech of introduction

introduce speaker or person to the audience building enthusiasm and boosting credibility

must be brief, accurate, adaptive to the audience, and create excitement

speech of presentation

present an honor or award, praising the recipient

must explain why they are receiving the award and its meaning

speech of acceptance

express gratitude and communicate the meaning of an award

must thank the presenter of award and those who have helped you gain it, brevity, humility, graciousness

speech of commemoration

paying tribute to a person, group, or idea

must heighten audience admiration and inspiration, express positive feelings with warm content and eloquent language

examples of commemorative speeches

commencement address, after-dinner speech, eulogy, inaugural, dedication, toast

commencement address

speech delivered to a graduating class

after-dinner speech

provide entertainment, humor, and anecdotes that enhance social atmosphere

eulogy

honors the life of the deceased

inaugural speech

given by individuals assuming a significant position or office

dedication

aims to recognize and appreciate the collective effort that went into a significant project

toast

to acknowledge and celebrate the significance of the subject and present well wishes

special occasion speech guidelines

focus on delivery, good language, being honest, sincere, and positive, using humor, concrete details and personal reference in order to create feelings of closeness and familiarity

the orator

a good man, skilled in speaking

the aim of every speech is to convince the judge that the case which it puts forward is true and honorable

duties of the orator

true truth, wisdom, virtue (credibility), justice (strives for a just outcome), person character (study the human virtues), knowledge (study widely in different fields), practice (skills of eloquence/oratory)

duties of the speaker

accurately represent views, regard audience members as reasoning people, present good evidence and sound reasoning

duties of the audience

hear the other side, allow others to hear and assess the speech, listen carefully and listen critically (thoughtfully), make an informed response when necessary

five speaker virtues

honesty above self-gain

courage in presenting ideas

cooperation to achieve resolution

respect for persons above winning

speech occasions exist within a context (relationship, event, circumstance)

the players in a persuasive speech

advocate, opponent, audience

advocate

argues for change

opponent

argues for no change

exigence

an imperfection marked by urgency

audience

argument evaluators

those who can be influenced

constraints

the limitations of the speech opportunity

presumption

the inclination (of the audience) to stick with existing beliefs and behaviors, favoring the status quo as in the way things are done now

burden of proof

the responsibility of the advocate to provide sufficient argument to overturn presumption

there must be compelling reason for change

obligations of the speaker

establish harm, ineherency, and solvency to show the damage caused by the status quo, the unavoidable nature of the problem, and how the solution resolves the imperfection

prima facie case

a self standing, complete argument, where the advocate has made an initially compelling case of sufficient argumentative strength

burden of clash

the opponent should establish weaknesses in the argument for change and the strengths of the status quo, challenging the ideas of the advocate

strategies for burden of clash

test the reasoning and evidence of the advocate, identify fallacies and contradictions, asked pointed question

types of humor

self deprecating, sarcasm, irony, word play, story telling

self deprecating

poking fun at yourself from a previous speech or event that happened

irony

opposites, set up the audience to think one thing, and show another

using humor in a speech

use to gain attention, illustrate a point, and diffuse tension

avoid controversial topics, practice timing and delivery , know your audience, be authentic, know when to stop