Unit 7: Cognition

Unit 7 on Cognition explores the mental processes involved in thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. This unit covers a broad range of topics, including memory, problem-solving, language, and creativity.

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

encoding

the processing of information into the memory system— for example, by extracting meaning

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously, the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions; contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system; includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare”

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

implicit memory

retention independent of conscious recollection

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli: a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli: if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within three or four seconds

chunking

organizing items into familiar, mangeable units; often occurs automatically

mneumonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information; sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

long-term potentiation

an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

relearning

a measure of memory that assess the amount of time saved when learning material again

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one’s past

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event

source amnesia

attributing to the wrong source, an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined

déjà vu

that eerie sense that one has experienced this before; cues from current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category; matching new items provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories

creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutoins

algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently

insight

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes, may lead us to ignore other relavent information

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common

overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident that correct— to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments

belief perseverance

clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments

language

our spoken, written, or signed words and the way we combine them to communicate meaning

phoneme

in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

morpheme

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or part of a word (like a affix)

grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others; semantics is the set of rules for deriving meaning from sound, and syntax is the set of rules for combining words into sensible sentences

babbling stage

beginning at about four months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language

one-word stage

the stage in speech development, from about ages one to two, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

two-word stage

beginning about age two, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements

telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram— “go car”— using mostly nouns and verbs

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left-hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area or to Wernicke’s area

Broca’s area

controls language expression— an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech

Wernicke’s area

controls language reception— a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

linguistic determinism

Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think