Tsarist and Communist Russia - History A-level AQA

when did Alexander II become Tsar?

1855 during the Crimean War

when was the crimean war?

1853-56

what happened during the crimean war?

Russia fought Britain, France and the Ottoman Empire and suffered major defeats because of poor leadership, outdated military technology and weak infrastructure, especially transport and communications.

The war exposed the backwardness of the Russian economy and military, showed the inefficiency of serfdom

contributed directly to Alexander II’s decision to introduce major reforms, including the Emancipation of the Serfs.

when was the emancipation of the serfs?

1861

when did Alexander II call for reformation?

1862-66

what were the military reforms?

- Conscription compulsory for all classes
- Weaponry modernised
- Standard time for military service lower (25 years to 10 years)
- Soldiers had better training as military colleges introduced
- Mass army educational campaigns improved literacy in the army

what were the limitations of the military reforms?

- Lots of reforms opposed by the nobility
- Army still relied on peasants for soldiers
- Wealthy people would avoid conscription by paying peasants to go instead
- Despite the reforms, they still lost wars to Turkey, Japan and Germany

what were the education reforms?

- Number of pupils doubled
- In 1870, women could attend non-vocational courses in secondary schools, they could not get a degree
- Students of all social classes were accepted into schools

what were the limitations of these reforms?

- Many students relied on state financial help, they were poor and malnourished
- Threatened autocracy (more literate students to question the Tsar)

what were the judiciary reforms?

- Simplified (fewer courts, each province had its own, cases could only be transferred to one or two others)
- Judges given high salaries and could not be removed (less likely to be bribed)
- Jury votes kept anonymous

what were the limitations of judiciary reforms?

- Separate court for peasants clearly displayed they were a lower social class
- Some courts remained outside the system, including Church courts (who managed divorce) and military courts
- Government officials could not be tried in the system
- Bureaucracy could still intervene (trial by jury not always guaranteed)
- Reforms occurred mostly in major cities

what were the local government reforms?

- Built better roads/infrastructure/primary schools
- Developed water supply/drainage
- System of local elected councils established, the 'Zemstva’ - chosen through electoral colleges (individuals voting for others to vote in their interests)

limitations of the local governement reforms

- Introduced in a limited number of provinces
- Did not achieve much, earlier on
- Peasants did not have direct access to votes in the Zemstva
- Zemstva dominated by the nobility, who did not take it seriously and ran the system to value their own motives

when was the polish revolt?

1863-64

what was the polish revolt?

-A nationalist uprising in Poland against Russian rule. -triggered by conscription quotas and long-standing resentment of Russification.

-Polish rebels demanded independence, but Russia crushed the revolt with harsh military repression.

what happened after the polish revolt?

-After defeating it, Alexander II imposed tighter control over Poland through intensified Russification, land seizures and administrative reforms that reduced Polish autonomy.

when was the first assasination attempt on Tsar Alexander II?

1866

what happened at the attempt of the assassination?

In 1866, a radical named Dmitry Karakozov tried to shoot Alexander II in St Petersburg.

The attempt failed, but it shocked the regime and marked a turning point, pushing the Tsar towards more conservative, repressive policies.

when were the dumas introduced in towns?

1870

why were the dumas introduced?

Town dumas were elected local councils that handled urban services like schools, public health, and infrastructure.

They were introduced early in towns because Russia’s cities were growing rapidly and needed more efficient, modern administration than the old, outdated urban structures could provide.

when was the Russo-Turkish war?

1877-78

what happened in the Russo-Turkish war?

Russia went to war with the Ottoman Empire to defend Slavic and Orthodox peoples in the Balkans.

Russia won key victories, forcing the Ottomans to accept the Treaty of San Stefano, which greatly increased Russian influence.

European powers later reduced these gains at the Congress of Berlin, limiting Russia’s successes.

what was the consequences of the Russ-Turkish war?

Russia’s military victory was weakened when the Congress of Berlin reduced the gains made in the Treaty of San Stefano, limiting Russian influence in the Balkans.

This caused disappointment and nationalist frustration inside Russia, strained relations with other European powers (especially Austria-Hungary and Britain), and highlighted Russia’s diplomatic isolation despite battlefield success.

when was tsar alexander II assassinated

1881

what happened at the assassination?

In 1881, members of the revolutionary group The People’s Will attacked Alexander II in St Petersburg.

After a first bomb damaged his carriage, the Tsar stepped out, and a second bomber threw an explosive at his feet.

The blast fatally wounded him, leading to his death shortly after and marking the end of the reform era.

what were the consequences of his assassination?

-led to a sharp shift away from reform.

-Alexander III abandoned his father’s liberal measures and introduced reactionary, repressive policies, strengthening police powers, increasing censorship, limiting the Zemstva, and intensifying Russification.

-The assassination also convinced the regime that reform encouraged revolution, reinforcing autocratic rule.

when was Alexander III crowned?

1881

what was the manifesto of unshakeable autocracy?

Issued by Alexander III, it declared that the Tsar would rule with full, unquestioned autocratic power.

It rejected further reform and justified strong central authority, marking the start of a more conservative and repressive era after Alexander II’s assassination.

why did repression increase because of this? 

Repression increased because Alexander III believed his father’s reforms had encouraged radicalism and helped cause the assassination.

To prevent further threats, the regime tightened control through censorship, surveillance and restrictions on society.

what is the okhrana?

The Okhrana was the Tsarist secret police responsible for monitoring, infiltrating and suppressing opposition.

It used surveillance, censorship, informers and arrests to protect the autocracy and prevent revolutionary activity, especially under Alexander III and Nicholas II.

what did repression mean for the okhrana

This resulted in the expansion of the Okhrana, which was strengthened to monitor, infiltrate and suppress revolutionary groups more effectively and protect the autocracy from further attacks.

when was the peasant landbank established?

1883

what was the peasant landbank?

the Peasant Land Bank helped peasants buy land from nobles by providing loans on favourable terms.

It aimed to stabilise the countryside and support a more loyal, property-owning peasantry, though in practice it mainly benefited wealthier peasants.

what were the consequences of the peasant land bank?

It allowed some peasants to buy land, creating a small class of more prosperous, loyal farmers.

However, most peasants gained little, and the majority remained poor and dissatisfied, so it did not solve rural unrest or prevent peasant opposition to the regime.

when was the famine in russia?

1891-92

what happened during the famine?

A severe famine struck Russia due to poor harvests, inadequate transport, and government mismanagement.

Millions suffered and thousands died. The Tsarist government’s slow and ineffective response caused public anger

what was the consequences of the famine?

led to the rise of charitable and opposition groups who criticised the regime, organised relief, and began challenging autocratic authority.

when did Alexander III die?

1894

how did Alexander III die?

Alexander III died of natural causes on 1 November 1894, likely from kidney disease, after a relatively short illness.

His death led to the accession of his son, Nicholas II.

when was nicholas II crowned?

1894

who is Witte?

Sergei Witte was Russia’s Finance Minister who drove industrialisation.

He promoted railway expansion, foreign investment, heavy industry, and introduced the Gold Standard.

 Witte also advised Nicholas II during the 1905 Revolution and helped draft the October Manifesto.

what were the gold standards and why were they introduced?

The Gold Standard, introduced under Witte in 1897, tied the Russian rouble’s value to gold.

It aimed to stabilise the currency, encourage foreign investment, and promote industrial growth, helping Russia modernise its economy and integrate into international markets.

when was the formation of the russian social democrat party?

1898

what was the purpose of the russian social democrat party?

the RSDP aimed to overthrow the autocracy and establish a Marxist socialist state in Russia.

It sought to organise the working class for revolutionary action and later split into Bolsheviks (led by Lenin, advocating a tightly controlled party) and Mensheviks

when was the socialist revolutionary party formed?

1901

what was the socialist revolutionary party? (SR)

the SRs aimed to overthrow the Tsarist regime and redistribute land to the peasants.

They used assassinations, terrorism, and agitation to achieve political change and were especially popular in rural areas, focusing on peasant-based revolution rather than urban industrial workers.

was the SR a good thing for russia?

The SRs challenged the autocracy and gave peasants a political voice, but their use of terrorism and assassinations created instability and violence.

While they pushed for reform, they also destabilised the government and contributed to political chaos, making their overall impact mixed.

when was the Russo-Japanese war?

1904-05

what happened in the russo-japanese war

Russia and Japan fought over territorial control in East Asia (Manchuria and Korea).

Japan achieved a series of surprising victories, including the destruction of the Russian fleet at Port Arthur.

what did the defeat mean for russia?

Russia’s defeats exposed military weakness, economic strain, and government incompetence, which fuelled domestic unrest and helped trigger the 1905 Revolution.

when was bloody sunday?

1905

what was bloody sunday?

peaceful protesters marched to the Winter Palace in St Petersburg to present a petition to Nicholas II.

Troops opened fire on the crowd, killing and wounding hundreds.

what did bloody sunday do to the tsars image?

Bloody Sunday shattered the image of the Tsar as a “kind father,” sparked mass strikes and unrest, and is considered the start of the 1905 Revolution.

when was the october manifesto?

1905

what was the october manifesto?

Issued by Nicholas II, it promised freedom of speech, assembly, and association, and the creation of a legislative Duma.

Its purpose was to appease unrest from the 1905 Revolution and reduce revolutionary pressure,

was the october manifesto a succes?

Partially. It temporarily calmed unrest and split opposition groups, giving the appearance of reform.

However, the Tsar retained ultimate power through the Fundamental Laws, and restrictions on the Duma meant it did not bring lasting change, so its success was limited.

what is the duma?

The Duma was Russia’s elected legislative assembly, created after the 1905 Revolution by the October Manifesto.

It was intended to give the population a voice in government, but its powers were limited by the Tsar and the Fundamental Laws, and he could dissolve it at will.

when were fundamental laws created?

1905

what were the fundamental laws?

The Fundamental Laws defined the powers of the Tsar after the 1905 Revolution.

They confirmed his absolute authority, allowed him to dissolve the Duma, control the military, and appoint ministers, showing that real power remained firmly with the monarchy despite the creation of the Duma.

what did the fundamental laws do?

assert authority for the tsar

when were stolypins agrarian reforms created?

1906-11

what were stolypins agrarians reforms?

Stolypin introduced reforms to modernise Russian agriculture, aiming to create a loyal, prosperous peasantry.

Key measures included: allowing peasants to buy land from communes and consolidate strips into individual farms, establishing Peasant Land Banks to finance purchases, and encouraging migration to Siberia.

Reforms aimed to reduce unrest and increase agricultural productivity.

were these reforms successful?

Partially. Some peasants gained land and wealth, forming a “kulak” class, and productivity increased in certain areas.

However, most peasants remained poor and tied to the commune, unrest continued, and the reforms did not prevent revolutionary activity, so overall success was limited.

who were the kulaks?

Kulaks were relatively wealthy peasants who benefited from Stolypin’s agrarian reforms.

They owned larger plots, bought extra land from the commune, invested in modern farming, and often employed poorer peasants, becoming a rural elite loyal to the Tsarist regime.

when were the four dumas convened?

1906-12

when did russia enter ww1

1914

who takes personal command of the army and when?

nicholas II and in 1915

who was rasputin?

Grigori Rasputin was a self-proclaimed holy man who gained influence over Tsarina Alexandra during Nicholas II’s reign, especially because he seemed to help their hemophiliac son, Alexei.

His closeness to the royal family and alleged corruption damaged the monarchy’s reputation and fueled public distrust.

when was rasputin murdered?

1916

how and why was rasputin murdered?

by nobles who feared his influence over Tsarina Alexandra and the monarchy.

He was poisoned, shot, and thrown into a river.

The murder aimed to save the reputation of the Tsarist regime and remove what they saw as a corrupt and destabilising influence.

when did Nicholas II abdicate?

1917

why did Nicholas II abdicate?

Nicholas II abdicated due to military defeats, economic collapse, and widespread political unrest caused by WW1.

Strikes, protests, and the loss of support from the army and Duma left him unable to maintain authority, forcing his abdication and ending centuries of Romanov rule.

when was the february revolution?

1917

what was the february revolution?

A uprising in Petrograd triggered by food shortages, strikes, and military defeats during WW1.

Workers and soldiers protested, mutinied, and formed Soviets, leading to Nicholas II’s abdication and the establishment of the Provisional Government.

It marked the end of the Tsarist autocracy.

when was the provisional government formed?

1917

what was the provisional government

The Provisional Government was a temporary government formed after Nicholas II’s abdication in March 1917.

Led by liberal politicians and moderates, it aimed to run Russia until a Constituent Assembly could be elected but struggled with continuing the war, economic crisis, and competing authority from the Soviets.

what did this mean for russia?

It created a system of dual power alongside the Petrograd Soviet, meaning authority was split.

The Provisional Government had official legal power, while the Soviets controlled workers and soldiers and could issue orders.

This weakened the government, caused confusion, and made it vulnerable to Bolshevik takeover.

who were the petrograd soviets?

The Petrograd Soviet was a council of workers’ and soldiers’ deputies formed during the February Revolution of 1917.

It represented the interests of workers and soldiers, issued orders and resolutions, and shared power with the Provisional Government, creating a system of dual authority in Russia.

when was Lenins april thesis?

1917

what was lenins april thesis?

Lenin’s April Theses called for “peace, land, and bread”, the transfer of power to the Soviets, and opposition to the Provisional Government.

He rejected gradual reform, demanded socialist revolution, and outlined the Bolsheviks’ strategy to gain support among workers, soldiers, and peasants.

was his april thesis a success?

Yes, eventually.

Initially many Bolsheviks were skeptical, but Lenin’s ideas resonated with workers, soldiers, and peasants, helping the Bolsheviks gain influence in the Soviets.

It set the stage for the October Revolution and Bolshevik seizure of power.

when was the july days?

1917

what was the july days?

A period of protests and armed demonstrations in Petrograd by workers and soldiers frustrated with the Provisional Government.

The Bolsheviks initially supported the unrest but were blamed for the chaos, leading to a temporary loss of influence and the arrest of key Bolshevik leaders, including Lenin (who later fled to Finland).

what affect did the july days have on russia?

The July Days weakened the Bolsheviks temporarily, discredited them in the eyes of the Provisional Government, and allowed a crackdown on revolutionary activity.

However, it highlighted popular dissatisfaction with the government and set the stage for the Bolsheviks’ eventual return to power in October.

who was kerensky?

Kerensky was a leader in the Provisional Government in 1917, serving as Minister of Justice, Minister of War, and later Prime Minister.

He tried to continue Russia’s involvement in WW1 and maintain order but struggled with dual power, unrest, and rising Bolshevik influence, ultimately failing to hold authority.

when was the Kornilov affair (Coup)?

1917

what was the Kornilov coup?

A failed attempt by General Kornilov to seize power from the Provisional Government and establish a military dictatorship.

The government, led by Kerensky, armed workers and Bolsheviks to stop him. The coup weakened the Provisional Government and increased support for the Bolsheviks.

when was the october revolution?

1917

what was the october revolution?

A Bolshevik-led seizure of power in Petrograd in October 1917.

They overthrew the Provisional Government, took control of key buildings and communications, and transferred authority to the Soviets, establishing Bolshevik rule and beginning the creation of a communist state in Russia.

was the october revolution a success?

Yes. The Bolsheviks seized power with relatively little resistance, overthrew the Provisional Government, and established control over key cities.

It allowed them to implement socialist policies and set up the Soviet state, marking the start of Bolshevik rule in Russia.

when was the cheka created?

1917

what was the cheka?

The Cheka was the Bolshevik secret police.

It monitored, arrested, and executed opponents of the Bolshevik regime, playing a key role in suppressing counter-revolution, enforcing Bolshevik policies, and consolidating power during the Civil War.

how useful was the cheka?

Very useful for the Bolsheviks.

The Cheka suppressed opposition, intimidated enemies, and maintained Bolshevik control during the Civil War and early Soviet period.

However, its terror tactics also created fear and resentment, contributing to social tension.

when was the constituent assembly dissolved?

1918

what was the constituent assembly?

The Constituent Assembly was an elected body meant to draft a new constitution for Russia after the February Revolution.

why was the constituent assembly dissolved?

The Bolsheviks dissolved it in January 1918 after winning only a minority of seats, asserting that Soviets represented the people, and consolidating one-party Bolshevik control.

when was the treaty of brest litovsk?

1918

what was the treat of brest litovsk

A peace treaty between Bolshevik Russia and Germany, ending Russia’s involvement in WW1.

Russia lost large territories (Poland, Ukraine, Baltic states) and resources, but it allowed the Bolsheviks to focus on consolidating power at home during the Civil War.

was the treaty a succes?

Partially. It was a success for the Bolsheviks because it ended Russia’s involvement in WW1, allowing them to focus on the Civil War.

However, it was a loss for Russia, as it ceded vast territories and resources, causing anger and resentment among many Russians.

when was the execution of the romanovs?

1918