1 Democracy and participation

Representative democracy

Electing representatives to make political decisions on their behalf, these representatives are held accountable by the public.

Direct democracy

Decisions are directly made by the public without their opinions being channelled through representatives.

Examples of direct democracy

Referendums

Electronic petitions

Consultative excises

Open primaries

Referendums

Enable the public to directly express their views on single issues

Electronic petitions

If a position reaches 100,000 signatures it will be considered for a debate in the house of commons.

Consultative exercises

Governing bodies wanting to assess the likely reaction to their proposed policies.

Open primaries

The public directly decides who the candidate should be.

Advantages of representative democracy

Decision making is made by professional

politicians highly educated in political issues.

Politicians not swayed by emotion and can

understand complexities within a question.

Protecting the rights of all citizens and not just the majority.

Advantages of direct democracy

Engages the public and makes politicians responsive to what people think.

Greater engagement in the political process, encouraging education in politics.

Disadvantages of representative democracy

General public isn't usually represented with 24% of people being privately educated in 2024.

Lobbyists and powerful pressure groups can influence representatives

Disadvantages of direct democracy

Nationwide votes can be logistically challenging

Tyranny of the majority

Populist rhetoric appealing to the masses

Pluralist democracy

Political power widely dispersed among society, such as in pressure groups and political parties rather than being concentrated.

Majoritarian

Decisions are made by the majority, often through elections and referendums.

Legitimacy

The extent to which a political system, government or decision can be exercised legally.

Similarities of direct and representative democracy

Aims to provide people with a voice in the decision making

In both of the systems people can be easily swayed by the media and politicians

Involves political participation

Differences of direct and representative democracy

Direct democracy individuals express themselves, RD citizens elect representative to make decisions on their behalf

Citizens are more involved in decision making for DD instead of RD.

There's more protection for minorities in RD as it stops tyranny of the majority in DD.

Individuals may not be able to understand complex issues in DD compared to RD which educated politicians make decisions.

Democratic deficit

A flaw in the political system where decisions are taken by people who lack legitimacy, and fail to engage the public.

Participation Crisis

A lack of engagement by a significant number of citizens causing persistently low or declining political engagement.

Franchise

The right to vote

1832 Great reform act

Extended the vote to middle class men owning property worth £10+ in yearly rent. Causing the electorate rising by 800,000.

1867 Reform Act

Extended the vote to urban working men, causing the electorate to double to around 2 million.

1884 Reform Act

Extended vote to rural working men, the electorate rose to around 6 million with 60% of adult men enfranchised.

1918 Representation of the People Act

Extended the vote to all men aged over 21 and women 30+ with property. Causing electorate to rise to around 21 million voters.

1928 Equal Franchise Act

Extended the vote to women on equal terms to men, causing the electorate to rise to around 26 million voters.

1969 Representation of the People Act

Lowered voting age to 18, added around three million new voters to the electorate.

Suffragists

Women who were non violent and campaigned in the early twentieth century for the right of women to vote.

Who were the Suffragists led by?

Led by Millicent Fawcett

Aimed to achieve votes through peaceful and lawful campaigning

Used petitions, public speaking, lobbying and local pressure groups

Built a broad national network to demonstrate support

Respectable and influential with MPs

Suffragettes

Women who were violent and campaigned in the early twentieth century for the right of women to vote

Who were the Suffragettes led by?

Emmeline Pankhurst

Confrontational tactics to force attention onto the issue

Organised protests, window-smashing, arson attacks and civil disobedience

Kept women's suffrage in national headlines and increased political pressure

Current movement: Votes at 16 campaign

Led by the Votes at 16 Coalition, coordinated by the British Youth Council aimed to expand the franchise to 16 year olds.

Successes of votes at 16

16-17 year-olds were allowed to vote in the 2014 Scottish Independence Referendum, achieving a turnout of 75%

Labour included Votes at 16 in its 2024 General Election manifesto, signalling growing political support

Limitations and challenges of votes at 16

16-17-year-olds cannot vote in UK General Elections, which is the main target of the campaign

Westminster has not legislated to extend the franchise across the UK.

Arguments for votes at 16

Encourages political participation

Strengthens political education

Fairness and responsibilities

Creates consistency across the UK

Arguments against votes at 16

Concerns over political maturity

Low turnout among young adults (Fewer than half voted in the 2024 general election.)

Limited public support.

Pressure groups

Organisations that seek to influence government policy without putting candidates forward for election.

Types of pressure groups

Sectional

Causal

Insider

Outsider

Sectional groups

These represent a specific section of society, such as a profession or union

E.g., the British Medical Association (BMA) campaigning for better conditions

Causal groups

These groups campaign for a cause that benefits wider society, rather than just members

E.g., Greenpeace promotes environmental protection and climate action.

Insider groups

These have close links with government and are often consulted on new laws or policy decisions

E.g. The National Farmers' Union (NFU)

Outsider groups

These lack government access and therefore rely on public pressure, media, and protest

E.g., Extinction Rebellion (XR) uses non-violent direct action to draw attention to climate change

Pressure groups methods to exert influence

Lobbying government ministers

Direct Action: including protests, advertising and civil disobedience

Legal action: using the courts to challenge government decisions

Media campaigns and petitions

How pressure groups support democracy

Promote participation

Improve political education

Represent minority interests

Hold government to account

Provide expertise

How pressure groups hinder democracy

Lack of accountability

Elitism and unequal influence

Disruptive or unlawful activity

Distortion of debate

Think tanks

Independent research organisations that develop policy ideas, produce reports and analyse government policy.

Lobbyists

Paid individuals or companies hired to influence government on behalf of clients.

Corporations

Businesses that seek government decisions which support their commercial interests

Magna Carta (1215)

Limited the power of the monarch and forced fair trial.

Guaranteed basic rights for nobles but became a symbolic foundation of the UK's constitutional tradition

Bill of Rights (1689)

Asserted Parliamentary sovereignty over the monarchy

Guaranteed frequent elections and Parliamentary privilege

Prohibited cruel and unusual punishment

Representation of the People Acts (1918 & 1928)

1918 Act extended the vote to all men over 21 and women over 30 with property

1928 Act extended equal suffrage, giving women the vote on the same terms as men

Human Rights Act (1998)

Incorporated the ECHR into UK law

Allowed individuals to challenge rights breaches in UK

courts

Made public bodies legally accountable for protecting human rights

Equality Act (2010)

Protects people with nine protected characteristics, including age, race, sex, disability, religion and sexual orientation.

Elections Act (2022)

Introduced mandatory voter ID at elections

Criticised for potentially disenfranchising some groups

Individual rights

Include free speech, privacy, freedom of religion

Collective rights

Include minority protections, trade union rights, national security

Individual rights threatening collective rights

Free speech vs anti-hate speech protections, e.g., Holocaust denial restrictions

Religious freedom vs equality rights

Collective rights threatening individual rights

Strikes reducing access to essential services, e.g., junior doctors' strikes 2022-25

Covid restrictions limiting movement, assembly and protest

Parliament protecting rights

Parliament is sovereign and can create new legislation to protect rights, for example, the Equality Act 2010

However, Parliament can also overturn existing legislation that protects rights

Devolved bodies protecting rights

Devolved bodies can also create legislation to protect rights, for example the Scottish Government created the Gender Recognition Act in 2023

However, Parliament is sovereign and is subservient to parliamentary law.

Judiciary protecting rights

Enforces the rule of law through judicial review

Can block unlawful government actions

Interprets the Human Rights Act and Equality Act