A&P Final

Location of oval window

Location of oval window

• at the base of the cochlea in the inner ear where the stapes attached

• marks beginning of scala vestibuli

Passage of light from cornea to vitreous humor

Cornea → pupil → iris → lens → vitreous humor

Aldosterone is a _______

regulator of extracellular fluid concentrations

What passes freely through the bowman's capsule

any small molecules (glucose, amino acids, water)

What doesn't pass freely through the bowman's capsule

RBCs, WBCs, platelets, large proteins

Most water is reabsorbed in the ___

in the proximal convoluted tubules (PCT)

Hormones made by kidney

Renin (maintains blood pressure) Erythropoietin [EPO] (makes RBC)

Define Proteinuria

presence of high protein levels in urine (sign of kidney damage)

Define Glycosuria

presence of high glucose in the urine, may point to type I or II diabetes

Define Pyuria

presence of pus in the urine (usually from bacterial infection)

Define Hematuria

presence of blood in urine (UTIs are the most common cause)

Granular leukocytes

neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils

Agranular leukocytes

Monocyte

Function of Neutrophils

Specialized to defend against bacterial infection

Function of eosinophils

Counteract the activities of histamines common in allergic reactions

Function of basophils

Release histamine, which contribute to inflammation and acts as vasodilator, and heparin, which opposes blood clotting

Function of monocytes

Release antimicrobial chemicals that attract other leukocytes to the site of an infection

Macrophages do what

phagocytize foreign substances

B-cells do what

produce antibodies

T-cells do what

Recognize infectious or cancerous body cells

Phagocytes do what

Engulf foreign materials via phagocytosis

Helper t-cells do what

Regulate and control other T/B cells

Natural Killer Cells do what

Release perforins, induce apoptosis ("good" cell death) against (cancer) cells

Mast cells do what

Release histamine that increases the diameter of local blood vessels (vasodilation) in response to tissue injury

Lymphocytes do what

Help kill tumor cells and help control immune responses

Dendritic cells

Take antigens from pathogen and makes it recognizable for other cells

Active immunity

own immune system is responsible for protecting us from a pathogen

Natural and artificial active immunity

natural: infection artificial: vaccination

Passive immunity

when we are protected from a pathogen by immunity gained from someone else

Natural and Artificial immunity

Natural: antibodies from mother to child Artificial: monoclonal antibodies (vaccines)

Where do B and T cells mature

• B cells mature in bone marrow

• T cells mature in the Thymus

Immune system surface barriers

Thin region of living surface cells that release fluids to wash away pathogens (Mucus, saliva, tears, etc.)

innate immunity (see more in SG)

An individual's genetically predetermined resistance to certain diseases.

adaptive immunity (see more in sg)

Ability of the body to react to specific microbial infection. ANTIGEN SPECIFIC

specificity and speed innate vs adaptive

Innate: quick non-specific Adaptive: slow specific

innate vs adaptive immunity (t/b cells)

Only adaptive immunity uses t/b cells

Source of plasma cells

Develop from B cells that have been activated

ABO+ blood types (see more in SG)

depending on antigens and corresponding antibodies, decided ABO and type of Rh determines if it is +/-

Heart valves do what

Allow blood to flow in only one direction, to prevent backflow

Atrioventricular valves do what

separate atria and ventricles

Atrioventricular valves

Left AV valve - bicuspid (mitral) valve Right AV valve - tricuspid valve

2 major outflow vessels

Pulmonary trunk from right ventricle Ascending aorta from the left ventricle

Semilunar valves types

Pulmonary and Aortic semilunar valve

Semilunar valves do what

• Closed during heart relaxation

• Open during ventricular contraction

systole and diastole (see more in SG)

contraction and relaxation

Atrial diastole (ventricular filling)

• Heart is relaxed, pressure is low

• Atrioventricular valves are open, semilunar valves closes

• Blood flows passively into the atria and into ventricles

Atrial systole: contraction

• Ventricles remain in diastole

• Atria contract

• Blood is forced into the ventricles

Isovolumetric contraction

• Atrial systole ends → ventricular systole begins Intraventricular pressure rises AV valves and ventricles close

Ventricular systole (ejection phase)

• Ventricles contract

• Intraventricular increases -Semilunar valves open, blood leaves from ventricles

• Atria are relaxed and filling with blood

Isovolumetric relaxation

• Ventricular diastole begins

• Pressure falls in arteries

• Semilunar valves close

• Ventricles are closed

• Atria pressure increases and av open

Myocardium is what

Middle layer of the heart

What layer of the myocardium thicker

Left ventricle because it pumps

lub dub sound

Lub: AV valves close Dub: semilunar valves close

What type of blood is received in the right atrium and ventricle

Deoxygenated blood

What type of blood is received in the left atrium and ventricle

Oxygenated blood

Tunicas of blood vessels (and which is thicker in veins or arteries)

• Tunica externa/adventitia (thicker in veins)

• Tunica media (thicker in arteries)

• Tunica intima

What happens during inspiration (inhalation)

• Diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract

• Intrapulmonary volume increases, gas pressure decreases

What happens during expiration (exhalation)

Intrapulmonary volume decreases, gas pressure increases Gasses flow out to equalize the pressure

Respiratory acidosis caused by

Failure of ventilation and accumulation of C02

What happens when you eat fat

• Raises your "bad" LDL cholesterol

• Gives body energy and supports cell function

Function of the stomach

Moves food from the esophagus to the small intestine

• Chemically and physically digests food

Chief extracellular ion in the Na/k pump is

Sodium (Na+)

Chief intracellular ion in the Na/k pump is

potassium (K+).

Na/k pump (see more in SG)

moves sodium and potassium across a cell membrane

Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (Malt)

Lymphoid follicles associated with mucous membrane epithelium

Peyer's patches do what

respond to ingested pathogens

Tonsils are and do what

inner surface of pharynx

protect against oral pathogens

Bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue (BALT) are and do what

Lymphoid nodule in the respiratory tract

Effective against inhaled pathogens

Where lymph drains

into the thoracic duct (right and left lymphatic ducts) to the subclavian vein

ACTH - what it is, where released from

• Hormone that releases from the anterior pituitary

• Stimulates release of cortisol from adrenal glands

Corpus luteum hormones where does it come from?

Structure in the ovaries that secrete estrogen and progesterone

Oxytocin do what

Stimulate uterine contractions during labor, positive feedback loop, increased contraction = in oxytocin = more contractions

Reproductive cells are called

gametes / sex cells

# of chromosomes

23 pairs, 46 total

Leydig cells produce

testosterone

Sertoli cells produce

androgen binding protein (ABP)

LH and relation to testosterone

Stimulates the leydig cells to produce testosterone

Vas deferens do what

Carries sperm that's produced in the testes

Epididymis do what

Temporary storage site for immature sperm

Accessory glands do what

produce a thick, yellowish secretion (60% of semen)

# Sperm after meiosis

4 haploid mature sperm

Ovarian uterine cycles (look more in SG)

Approximately 28-day cycle of changes in the ovary consisting of a follicular phase and a luteal phase

FSH is high in a woman's body

Uterus bleeds and follicles mature

Ovarian follicle cycle

More ovarian follicles = produce more estrogen = shuts down production of FSH = increasing LH = triggers ovulation

Ovulation is what

eggs ejected from ovaries and occurs on day 14

Corpus luteum produces/secretes

Progesterone that maintains the lining of the uterus

If the egg is not fertilized what happens to hormones

levels of progesterone and estrogen fall off

When estrogen levels fall

level of FSH begins to rise and causes another FSH to start to mature again

Term for gametes

haploid reproductive cell

Spermatogenesis location

seminiferous tubules of the testes

Testosterone relation to FSH

FSH stimulates spermatogenesis and Sertoli cell function to produce ABP (increase testosterone in the testis)

IgG antibodies

passed from mother to unborn child via placenta

IgA antibodies

pass immunity to an infant through breastfeeding

IgE antibodies

Causes antigen-specific degranulation response to parasites or allergies