Chapters 1-4 HHD

Indigenous vs Non Indigenous

Indigenous vs Non Indigenous

-Higher rates of chronic conditions including cancer, respiratory disease and CVD.
-High or very high levels of psychological distress
-Diabetes/high glucose rates higher than Non-Indigenous
-Chronic kidney disease rates higher than Non- Ind
-Higher rates of STI
-Higher rates of dental decay and gum disease

Biological factors for Indigenous

-Indigenous have higher blood pressure compared to non Indigenous, increasing CVD.
-Indigenous Australian's have a higher impaired glucose regulation, increasing type 2 diabetes.
-Indigenous are more likely to be obese than non indigenous, increasing CVD and type 2 diabetes.
-Indigenous Australian's are twice as likely to give birth to a low weight baby, increasing chronic conditions.

Sociocultural factors for Indigenous

-Indigenous Australians are less likely to access healthcare as they often face cultural barriers in receiving westernised health care. Thee is limited traditional Indigenous doctors or health centres that are available.
-Indigenous Australian's have lower levels of educational attainment, lower incomes and higher unemployment.- therefore cannot understand health promotion, worse diets and engage in smoking, less physical activity.
-Indigenous Australians often feel socially excluded from society, they face discrimination and suffer psychological distress at higher rates.
-Indigenous Australians have much higher rates of maternal smoking and have higher alcohol consumption while pregnant- low birth weight babies. .

Environmental factors for Indigenous

Housing- poorer living conditions, ventilation, unhygienic living conditions, leads to overcrowding and infectious diseases.
Access to healthcare- Due to living in rural and remote locations, have limited options for healthcare and often diseases go untreated or undiagnosed.
Infrastructure- Indigenous are more likely to live in rural areas where roads are poorer quality
Safe water sanitation

Males and Females statistics

Males have higher overall burden of disease compared to females
Males experience higher rates of chronic conditions; cardiovascular disease, kidney disease, diabetes, cancers, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
Males have higher rates of injury, suicide and road trauma compared to females
Males experience higher rates of premature death than females.
Males have higher rates of being overweight, however females have higher levels of obesity
Males have lower rates of osteoporosis and arthritis
Males report slightly fewer cases of long-term mental & behavioural problems
Males are less likely to experience high or very high levels of psychological distress than females

Biological factors for females and males

-Blood pressure- Overall, men were more likely to have high blood pressure than women. However after the 65 years, women the higher blood pressure than males, increasing risk of CVD.
-Males were more likely to experience impaired glucose regulation than females, increasing type 2 diabetes.
-More men are overweight than women.
-Men are more likely to store body fat in abdomens and have higher levels of testosterone which increase their levels of risk taking and likelihood of injuries.

Sociocultural factors for females and males

-The weekly average income for males is more than females, therefore higher SES status. Females are more likely to work part time.
-Due to gender stereotypes of males being perceived as macho man image, they are less likely to access healthcare, increase rates of chronic illnesses.

Environmental factors for females and males

Males are more likely to work in industries such as trades, farming and mining and are more working with heavy machinery and tools, increasing the risk of injury compared to females who are less represented in these work enivronments. Males are also more likely to work outside, increasing risk of skin cancer.

Low and high SES for biological factors

-People from low SES status groups have a higher blood pressure compared to high SES groups, increasing risk of CVD.
-People from low SES are more likely to have higher rates of impaired glucose regulation, increasing Type 2 diabetes.
People from low SES have higher levels of overweight and obesity.
People from low SES are likely to give birth to a low birthweight baby, increasing risks for chronic conditions.

High and low SES statistics

-Those from a low SES have a life expectancy lower than high SES.
-Those from a low SES have a higher mortality rates than people from a high SES.
-Those from a low SES have higher infant mortality rates than high SES.
-Those form a low SES have higher rates of chronic conditions.

Low and high SES for sociocultural factors

Education achievement levels are lower in those from low SES and unemployment rates are higher from lower ES groups. Income lower from low SES groups.
Low SES are less likely to access healthcare and are more likely to experience social exclusion as they may feel disconnected with society increasing levels of mental health conditions. Due to inability afford nutritious food more likely to suffer from obesity.

Low and high SES for environmental factors

-Due to higher rates of smoking overall, children have a greater exposure to passive smoking increasing risk of asthma and respiratory conditions.
-Low SES are more likely to live in inadequate, unsafe or overcrowded housing conditions compared to high SES. This may mean there is not enough ventilation, risk of unhygienic conditions.
-Low SES population groups often live in outer suburbs or metropolitan cities where take away is popular, increasing risk of obesity.

Geographical location statistics

-lower life expectancy (life expectancy decreases as the level of remoteness increases
higher burden of disease from both fatal and non-fatal causes. The rate of DALY attributed to each group increases with remoteness
mortality rates are higher than those in major cities
-higher rates of preventable cancers (lung, melanoma and detectable cancers, such as cervical cancer)
-higher death rates from cardiovascular disease, including coronary heart disease
-higher rates of injury, including a mortality rate is higher than those in major cities for land transport accidents
-higher rates of diabetes, arthritis, suicide, asthma, COPD, dental decay, mental health disorders

Geographical location for biological factors

-Those who live in major cities likely to have higher blood pressure.
-Those living outside of major cities are more likely to have higher blood cholesterol.
-Those living outside major cities are more likely to have impaired glucose regulation.
-Levels of overweight and obesity are higher amongst those living in major cities.
-More likely to giver birth to low weight babies.

Geographical location for sociocultural factors

-SES-Educational achievement, employment opportunities and income are all lower for outside major cities.
Social isolation
-Food security- nutritious food more expensive.
-Early life experiences- smoking and alcohol consumption more common.

Geographical location for environmental factors

-Infrastructure- less access to public transport.
-Access to healthcare
-Work environment- trades, farming, exposed hazardous work and heavy machinery.
-Climate and Climate change- often harsher conditions in rural areas, increase mental health issues.

Mortality

The number of deaths in a population in a given period.

Mortality rate

Sometimes referred to as 'death rate', the measure of the proportion of a population who die in a one-year period. usually per 100 000.

Infant morality rate

The rate of deaths of infants before their first birthday, usually expressed per 1000 live births.

Under 5 mortality rate

The number of deaths of children under five years of age per 1000 live births.

Maternal mortality

Death of a mother during pregnancy, childbirth or within six weeks of delivery which can lead to Obstetric hemorrhage-heavy bleeding occurring as a result of pregnancy or childbirth.

Maternal mortality rate

The number of mothers who die as a result of pregnancy, childbirth or associated treatment per 100 000 women who give birth (or per 100 000 live births).

Morbidity

Ill health in an individual and levels of ill health within a population.

Incidence

Refers to the number (or rate) of new cases of a disease/condition in a population during a given period.

Prevalence

The total number or proportion of cases of a particular disease or condition present in a population at a given time.

Self assessed health status

An individual's own opinion about how they feel about their health, their state of mind and their life in general.

Life expectancy

The number of years of life, on average, remaining to an individual at a particular age if death rates do not change. The most commonly used measure is life expectancy at birth.

HALE (Health Adjusted Life Expectancy)

The average length of time an individual at a specific age can expect to live in full health; that is, time lived without the health consequences of disease or injury.

Burden of disease

A measure of the impact of diseases and injuries, specifically it measures the gap between current health status and an ideal situation where everyone lives to an old age free of disease and disability. Burden of disease is measured in a unit called the DALY.

DALY (daily-adjusted life year)

A measure of burden of disease. One DALY is equal to one year of healthy life lost due to illness and/or death. DALYs are calculated as the sum of YLL and YLD

YLL (years of life lost)

A measure of how many years of expected life are lost due to premature death.

YLD (Years Lost due to Disability)

A measure of how many healthy years of life are lost due to disease, injury or disability.

New Definition of Health

The state of a person's physical, social, emotional, mental and spiritual existence, characterised by an equilibrium in which the individual feels happy, healthy, capable and engaged.

Equilibrium

A state of balance and/or calmness

Subjective

Influenced or based on personal beliefs, feelings or opinions

Disease

A disease is a physical or mental disturbance involving symptoms, dysfunction or tissue damage.

Infirmity

The quality or state of being weak or ill; often associated with old age

Illness

Illness is a subjective concept relating to personal experience of a disease. Illness relates to how a person feels about, and experiences, disease and injury.

Dynamic

Health is continually changing and the way in which an individuals views them can change over time.
For example, physical health and wellbeing may deteriorate over time as an individual grows older.

Physical health and wellbeing

Relates to the functioning of the body and its systems; it includes the physical capacity to perform daily activities or tasks.

Optimal physical health examples

Healthy body weight
Freedom from illness, disease or injury
Adequate energy levels
ability to complete daily tasks without physical restriction
Appropriate fitness levels
strong immune system

Social health and wellbeing

The ability to form meaningful and satisfying relationships with others and the ability to manage or adapt appropriately to different social situations

Optimal Social health examples

Supportive network of friends
Productive relationships with other people
Supportive and well functioning family
Effective communication with others
Ability to manage or adapt appropriately to different social situations
Able to build relationships

Mental health and wellbeing

Relates to the state of a person's mind or brain and the ability to think and process information and enables an individual to positively form opinions, make decisions and use logic.

Optimal mental health examples

Low levels of stress and anxiety
Positive self esteem
process information to solve problems
High levels of confidence
Use logic and reasoning to form opinions and make decisions
positive thought patters/optimistic

Emotional health and wellbeing

Relates to the ability to recognise, understand, effectively manage and express feelings, in a positive way. It also includes the ability to display resilience. (feels secure and relaxed)

Optimal emotional health examples

Recognise and understand range of emotions
Have a high level of resilience
Effectively respond to emotions
Manage emotions well
Experience appropriate emotions in different scenarios

Spiritual health and wellbeing

Relates to ideas, beliefs, values and ethics that arise in the minds and conscience of human beings. It includes the concepts of hope, peace, a guiding sense of meaning or value, and reflection on a person's place in the world.

Optimal Spiritual health

A sense of belonging and connection to the world
Positive meaning and purpose in life
Peace and Harmony
Developed personal values and beliefs
Acting according to values and belief
Religion

Physical- social
Physical-mental
Physical- emotional
Physical-spiritual

Adequate levels of energy means you are able to do activities with friends which enhances relationships.
Being fit and physically capable to carry out daily tasks make it's more likely for their self esteem and confidence to increase
If you're sick, you are experiencing range of emotions such as fear and anger and have the resilience to get better.
Adequate energy levels and can physically function will make them able to participate in community events, giving sense of belonging.

Peace

Peace can be defined as the absence/freedom of conflict and war. When country is experiences peace, there is decreased risk of deaths and injuries. Promotes preservation of infrastructure, agriculture, electricity systems, which lowers risk of disease, provides socialisation and lowers stress and anxiety.

Shelter

Shelter is a structure that provides protection from outside environment. These assist in privacy, safety, reduced risks of disease, reduced stress and anxiety, protection from extreme weather, also increases adequate sleep.

Education

Empowers individuals and increases their knowledge. Promotes higher self esteem, able to earn an income which improves economic development, increases the ability to afford resources such as food, shelter, healthcare. Also provides a send of purpose or meaning in life.

Food

Nutritious substances that people, animals, plants eat or drink in order to maintain life and growth. Food security enhances the ability to meet required nutrients for well functioning body. Reduces diseases and are less stressed looking for food. Able to work productively further improving income.

Income

When money is received consistently through jobs or investments. It increases the ability to afford resources such as healthcare, transport, food and education.

Stable Ecosystem

Ecosystem is a community that consists of all of the living (animals, plants, bacteria) and non-living components (rocks, soil, water, weather) of a particular area. Animals and plants are organic matter used for food and provides energy. Improves employment for agriculture and fishing industries. Predictable weather patterns contribute to effective farming and food security. Rocks and water used for shelter and hydration.

Sustainable resources

Sustainability is meeting the needs of present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Relate to ensuring that resources are used to promote health and wellbeing required for energy production, food, water supply, housing. Wind and solar power assists in allowing resources such as heating promoting productivity in school, cooling, electricity, transport..

Social Justice

Ensuring that essential human needs are met and that essential human rights are protected for all people. Regardless of sex, class, income, ethnicity, religion, age or sexual orientation.

Equity

Equity relates to fairness but has a particular focus on disadvantaged groups. All people should have access to resources for a decent standard of living.

Optimal health as a resource individually

Work productively
Reduced healthcare costs
Gain an education
Earn an income
Exercise
Effectively run a household
Spend time with friends
Work towards their purpose in life
Increase leisure time
Live independently

Optimal health as a resource nationally

Longer healthier lives
Health system savings
Fewer people relying on social security
Increased productivity for work
High average income
Reduced stress and anxiety within community
Increased social participation

Optimal health as a resource globally

Reduced risk of disease transmission between countries
Assists in promoting peace and stability
Promotes economic development
Promotes social development
Promotes sustainability

Life expectancy

The average number of years an individual can be expected to live, given current social, economic, and medical conditions. Life expectancy at birth is the average number of years a newborn infant can expect to live.

Mortality

death rate

Morbidity

Refers to ill health in an individual and the levels of ill health in a population or group.

Health Adjusted Life Expectancy (HALE)

A measure of burden of disease based on life expectancy at birth, but including an adjustment for time spent in poor health. It is the number of years in full health that a person can expect to live, based on current rates of ill health and mortality.

Self assessed health status

A measure based on a person's own opinion about how they feel about their health and wellbeing, their state of mind and their life in general.

Burden of disease

A measure of the impact of diseases and injuries, specifically it measures the gap between current health status and an ideal situation where everyone lives to an old age free of disease and disability. Burden of disease is measured in a unit called the DALY. One DALY is the equivalent of one year lost in full health.

Incidence

The number or rate of new cases of a particular condition during a specific time.

Prevalence

The number or proportion of cases of a particular disease or condition present in a population at a given time.

Factors that influence level of illness

Past experience, age, or pain threshold.

Four main factors of influence

-Smoking
-Alcohol
-High body mass index
-Dietary risks (under consumption of vegetables, fruit and dairy foods; high intake of fat, salt and sugar; low intake of fibre and iron).

Smoking risk factors

-Cardiovascular disease
-Many forms of cancer including lung cancer
-Prenatal and infant health outcomes — low birth weight, increased risk of infectious diseases and premature death
-Respiratory diseases such as asthma)
-Increased risk of infection

Preventions implemented for smoking

A range of interventions contributed to this decrease, including advertising bans, bans on smoking indoors and increasingly in outdoor public spaces, plain packaging, price increases, restrictions on sales to minors, public education, and media campaigns.

Smoking and cardiovascular disease

Tobacco smoke reduces the amount of oxygen in the blood, which increases blood pressure and heart rate. Chemicals in tobacco smoke speed up the process of atherosclerosis, which significantly increases the risk of heart attack and stroke. (Thicken, sticky blood, blood cots form)

Smoking and cancer

Tobacco smoke can cause a fault in body cells as they divide. This can lead to a tumour and, ultimately, cancer.

Smoking and prenatal/infant health outcomes

Tobacco use during pregnancy reduces blood flow to the baby, which reduces the amount of nutrients available for optimal development and growth
- leads to low birthweight. Babies (under 2.5 kilograms) are more likely to have an underdeveloped immune system, making them more susceptible to infections.

smoking and asthma

Asthma causes the muscles in the airways to tighten and the lining of the airway becomes swollen and inflamed, producing sticky mucous. This is amplified when smoking.

Smoking and respiratory system

Tobacco smoke damages the airways, which contributes to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
-Bronchitis and emphysema
Tobacco smoke contributes to this condition by causing inflammation of the airways and destroying the air sacs in the lungs, where gas exchange occurs.

Risk factors of Alcohol use

-High body mass index and associated impacts including cardiovascular disease
-Prenatal/infant health outcomes including foetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD), premature birth and low birthweight -Alcohol use
-Cancer Liver disease (including cirrhosis)
-Injuries including self-harm
-Mental health issues

Alcohol and high body mass index

Alcohol contains kilojoules and therefore energy, which means it can increase the chances of an individual gaining weight.

Alcohol and cancer

There is strong evidence that alcohol use increases the risk of a range of cancers including cancer of the mouth, throat, stomach, bowel, liver and breast.

Alcohol and live disease

Alcohol is filtered through the liver. Excessive consumption can cause scarring of the liver tissue, which can lead to the liver not functioning properly and toxins remaining in the body. Over time, this can lead to chronic liver diseases such as cirrhosis of the liver.

Alcohol and injuries or self harm

Behaviour can change, putting a strain on relationships and increasing the risk of mental health issues such as depression and associated outcomes including suicide and self-harm. Under the influence of alcohol, more likely to act impulsively and take risks such as drink driving and displaying aggression.

Alochol and mental health issues

Alcohol is a depressant, and some studies suggest that people with depressive symptoms are more likely to misuse alcohol and develop alcohol dependence in their younger years.

Alcohol and prenatal infant health outcomes

Alcohol consumption while pregnant increases the risk of premature birth, low birth weight and foetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD). A lifelong birth defects and neurodevelopment abnormalities that occur as a result of prenatal alcohol exposure.

Body mass index

A statistical measure of body mass calculated by dividing weight (in kilograms) by height (in m2).
Under 18.5 Underweight 18.6-24.9 Healthy weight 25-29.9 Overweight 30 and over Obese

Risk factors for BMI

-Cardiovascular disease
-Some cancers
-Type 2 diabetes
-Chronic kidney disease
-Osteoarthritis and osteoporosis
-Asthma
-High body mass index
-Mental health issues
-Maternal health conditions

BMI and cardiovascular disease

High body mass index usually means there is a greater strain on the heart, which increases the risk of hypertension, heart attack and stroke. Cholesterol levels can be elevated, which increases the rate of atherosclerosis and the risk of cardiovascular disease.

BMI and kidney disease

High body mass index increases the risk of high blood pressure and type 2 diabetes, which are two significant risk factors for kidney disease.

BMI and type 2 diabetes

In type 2 diabetes the pancreas does not produce enough insulin, or the body cannot use the insulin effectively (known as insulin resistance). High body mass index is the greatest risk factor for type 2 diabetes.

BMI and Osteoporosis and Osteoarthritis

High body mass index puts more pressure on joints, which can contribute to osteoarthritis, which is characterised by cartilage being worn down. When cartilage wears down, bone rubs on bone, which causes pain and limited mobility.

BMI and maternal health conditions

Pregnant women with high body mass index are more susceptible to a range of pregnancy-related conditions such as high blood pressure and gestational diabetes. High body mass index is also a risk factor for maternal mortality.

Underconsumption of vegetables

-High body mass index and associated conditions
-Cardiovascular disease
-Various cancers
-Neural tube defects

Vegetables and BMI

Consuming vegetables instead of energy dense foods can assist with weight management and reduce the risk of high body mass index. Vegetables are also a rich source of fibre, which further assists in reducing the risk of weight gain and some cancers such as colorectal cancer.

Vegetables and cardiovascular disease/cancer

Vegetables are also a source of antioxidants, which work to reduce the impact of free radicals in the body. Free radicals are molecules that can damage body cells and increase rates of morbidity and mortality due to conditions such as cardiovascular disease and cancer

Vegetables and Neural tube defects

Nutrients found in vegetables, such as folate, play a significant role in the development of the brain and spinal cord during the prenatal stage of the lifespan. Underconsumption of vegetables before and during pregnancy increases the risk of neural tube defects such as spina bifida.

Underconsumption of fruits and BMI

People who eat adequate amounts of fruit are likely to feel full for longer and are therefore less likely to consume energy dense foods. This assists in protecting against weight gain, high body mass index and associated conditions such as cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes and some cancers.

Fruits and cardiovascular disease, cancer, neural tube defects

By containing relatively high amounts of nutrients including vitamins, minerals and fibre, while being low in fat and a good source of antioxidants, fruit plays similar roles in the body as vegetables. As a result, underconsumption of fruit also increases the risk of conditions such as cardiovascular disease, cancers and neural tube defects.

Underconsumption of dairy and osteoporosis

Provision of calcium, a mineral essential for a range of functions in the human body including the strengthening of bones and the prevention of osteoporosis- a bone disease characterised by weak, porous bones that are susceptible to fracture