A level sociology research methods

Primary data

New data that a sociologists has created themselves by doing research

Secondary data

Data that already exists which the sociologists uses to do their research

Quantitative data

Data which is numerical and statistical. can be measured in some way.

Qualitative data

Data is word form that is descriptive and often concerned with peoples feelings and reasons why.

Reliable data

When the research can be repeated by a different researcher using the same method and set the results

Valid data

When research gives a true idea of what is happening. often concerned with feeling and meanings.

Sample

A group smaller proportion of the group to study.

Random sampling

People are chosen with a system from a list of names, eg drawing names out of a hat.

Systematic sampling

Names are selected from sampling frame at regular intervals

Stratfied sampling

Researcher splits the group based on characteristics. researcher then randomly selects a proportional sample from each category. this ensures that the sample is proportionally representative of the sample population

Quota sampling

Interviewers find people to fill pre-set categories.

Multi-stage sampling

Sample is selected and then a smaller sample is chosen from that sample

Snowball sampling

Researcher finds one suitable person - the first person then introduces the researcher to other contacts - chain of introductions - sample

Volunteer sampling

The research advertised and participants put themselves forward, participants are self-selected

Non-representative sampling

A group is selected for a particular purpose, which is not representative because it has the particular characteristics you want to study.

Positivist

eg Durkheim, are interested in studying aspects of society which can be objectively observed. less interested in the thoughts and feelings of individuals, more interested in 'social facts'

Interpretivits

eg Weber, take a different approach, focusing their research on the meanings behind the behaviour individuals. favour use of qualitative methods to gain empathetic understanding of social action

Positivists characteristics

-Quantitative

-Reliable

-Scientific

-Objective

-Cause and effect relationship

Interpretivists characteristics

-Qualitative

-Valid

-Less scientific

-Subjective

Practical factors - examples

-Time

-Research characteristics

-Access

-Money

-Personal skills

Ethical factors - examples

-Deception

-Right to withdraw

-Informed consent

-Protection from harm

-Sensitivity

Theoretical factors - examples

-Positivists

-Interpretivists

-Quantitative

-Qualitative

Primary methods

-Questionnaires

-Interviews

-Observations

-Experiments (lab + field)

Secondary methods

-Documents

-Official statistics

-Experiments (comparative method)

Questionnaires

A list of questions requiring a response from participants. they are usually written and done by post or online

Types of questionnaire

-Postal

-Online

-Self-completion

Postal questionnaire

Questionnaire which is sent to participant via post.

Online questionnaire

Questionnaire which can be completed online via website or email

Self-completion questionnaires

Questionnaires completed independently by participants on their own time.

Open questions

Type of question which gives no suggested answers and requires participants to answer in their own words.

Closed questions

Type of question which with a list of multiple choice answer which participants choose from.

Standardised

Questionnaires are all the same and so all participants are asked exactly the same question

Operationalise

When a concept is made measurable

Pilot study

'Trial run' of the questionnaire. this is used to check that questions are appropriate and make sense to participants

Social desirability

When a participant responds in the way they think is socially acceptable or the way they think they are expected to respond

Questionnaire - theoretical considerations

-Favoured by positivist as it is more reliable, quantitative, objective, scientific and easy to analyse

-Not favoured by interpretivists as there is no validity, not quantitative, subjective

Questionnaire Advantages

Ethical

-Not too intrusive and do not ask in depth sensitive questions

-Easily able to withdraw

theoretical

-Favoured by positivists as quantitative allows for correlations

-Data is reliable as it is standardised

Practical

-Quick to create and to fill out which allows a higher response rate

-No interviewer bias

Questionnaire disadvantage

Theoretical

-May impose their own views by asking certain questions

Structured interviews

The researcher has a strict interview schedule. list of questions to ask.

Open questions (interviews)

When a participant is able to answer a question in anyway they choose

Closed questions (interviews)

When a participants is given a fixed set of answers to choose from.

Interview schedule

A list of pre-set questions written by the interviewer prior to a structured interview

Researcher characteristics (interview bias)

Whether the researcher and participant share similar characteristics may affect the answers given

Structured interviews - theoretical considerations

-Favoured by positivists due to the use of quantitative data, standardised, specific and reliable

-Not favoured by interpretivists due to not being qualitative, less scientific

Advantages of structured interviews

Practical

-Higher response as respondents easier to be persuaded

-Relatively quick to conduct

-Less time consuming so can have a larger sample

Theoretical

-Easy to analyse as questions are standardised

Disadvantage of structured interviews

Ethical

-Unsuitable for sensitive topics due to formalities of lack of rapport

Unstructured interviews

The researcher is completely flexible with the questions they ask having only a pre-decided topic area to discuss

Rapport

Developing a relationship of empathy and trust

Advantages of unstructured interviews

Theoretical

-Qualitative data which increases validity

Practical

-More appropriate for sensitive topics and have power over what they want to talk about

Disadvantages of unstructured interviews

Theoretical

-Less reliable as they are not standardised questions

-Qualitative data is more time consuming to analyse

Practical

-Interview can take hours as respondent needs as much time as possible

-Certain personal skills needed to build trust and rapport

Semi-structured interview

Combination of set interview schedules and solve flexibility ask additional questions where appropriate.

Semi-structured theoretical considerations

Favoured by both as provides qualitative and quantitative data.

Group interviews

These involve multiple participants at one time usually with an interviewer.

Advantages of semi-structured

Theoretical

-Combine strengths of both structured and unstructured interviews

-Obtain both quantitative and qualitative data which is both reliable and valid data.

Disadvantages of semi-structured interviews

Theoretical

-Be skilled in both positivist + interpretivist so can analyse both data sets

Practical

-Well trained as it will be flexible and need to adapt

Advantages of group interviews

Practical

-Observe interactions between interviewees

-Less time consuming + costly than individual interviews

Ethical

-Ensure informed consent and right to withdraw is explained

Disadvantages of group interviews

Ethical

-Need to be carefully trained have good personal skills to build rapport and trust

-Social desirability more likely to occur and people may feel more confident in a group.

Participant observations

When a researcher watched a group's behaviour and join in with

Types of Observation

-Covert

-Overt

-Structured

-Unstructured

-Ethnography

Covert

When the participant do not know they're being watched.

Overt

When the participants know they are being watched.

Structured (observation)

Ticking off the amount of behaviours from a list (observation schedule)

Unstructured (observation)

Writing descriptive notes on what has been observed.

Ethnography

An in-depth PO where the researcher immerses themselves in the participants.

Hawthorne effect

When the participant knows they are being watched, and so this impacts on their behaviour.

Gatekeeper

The member of the group who gives the researcher permission to enter group/closed setting

Closed setting

An environment which is difficult to access e.g. a school, hospital or prison

Participant observation - theoretical considerations

-Interpretivists would favour unstructured observations as gives them qualitative, valid data, less scientific, subjective, meanings behind actions

-Also prefer participant observation as more qualitative and valid data

-Not favoured by positivist as it is not quantitative data

Advantages of structured PO

Practical

-Less personal skills as it is just ticking off lists

Theoretical

-High in reliability, quantitative data, favoured by positivists

Disadvantage of structured PO

Practical

-To design tally chart you need to have advance skill and need to be able to operationalise

Advantages of overt PO

Ethical

-Informed consent, no deception involved

Theoretical

-Qualitative data

Practical

-Easy to complete field diary due ti overt nature

Disadvantages of overt PO

Theoretical

-Hawthorne effect can occur and could lower validity

-Lacks representativeness and reliability as sample will be small

Practical

-Time consuming, stressful and demand lots of skills

Advantages of covert PO

Practical

-Only method possible when researching specific groups

Disadvantages of covert PO

Ethical

-Ethical issues such as deceiving people to obtain information

-No informed consent or knowledge of the right to withdraw

Practical

-Lots of skill required such as acting skills, how to record data

-Personal characteristics of the researcher may init who can be studied

Advantages of unstructured PO

Theoretical

-Qualitative data, high in validity and favoured by interpretivists

-Greater flexibility to record interesting information.

Disadvantage of unstructured PO

Practical

-Less preparation required, grater skill required to interpret behaviour

Non-participant observations

The researcher watches the participants but doesn't join in

Objectivity

More factual - no opinion changed - distanced

Non-participant observation theoretical considerations

-Favoured by positivists as it is more objective, quantitative data, reliable

Disadvantages of overt non-PO

Theoretical

-Hawthorne effect may occur which influences validity

Practical

-Some groups may not allow research to occur and get permission from gatekeeper

-Sensitive about your body language/language to ensure it suits the group and takes individual skill

Advantages of structured non-PO

Theoretical

-Preferred by positivist as research is objective as they can watch larger groups

-Quantitative data by the use of tally chart snd is more reliable

Practical

-Less personal skills, as simply ticks off behaviours

Disadvantage of structured non-PO

Practical

-Designing the tally chart requires skill and need to be operationalise

Advantages of covert non-PO

Practical

-Use to observe groups that would be otherwise difficult to access

-Fewer skill required than PO as you watch without taking part

Disadvantages of covert non-PO

Ethical

-Have to deceive participants which is unethical and not given their informed consent and not know of their right to withdraw

Practical

-Using a cover story have to be able to act

Advantages of unstructured non-PO

Theoretical

-Produces qualitative, valid data and favoured by interpretivists

Practical

-Researcher has to be flexible to record interesting information as it arises

Disadvantage of unstructured non-PO

Practical

-Less preparation required, greater skill required and interpret behaviour seen.

Experiments

A research method which involves the researcher trying to establish cause and effect relationship by testing relationships

Laboratory experiment

An experiment that takes place in an artificial, controlled setting

Field experiment

An experiment which takes place in the participants' natural environment

Comparative method

A 'thought experiment' conducted by comparing data and with no actual participants

Control group

The group which has no variables changed to act as a comparison with the experimental group

Experimental group

The group where the independent variable is manipulated to create a consequence

Hypothesis

A prediction about the outcome of research

Correlation

A relationship between the dependent and independent variable where one seems to have an impact on the other.

Independent variable

The variable which is changed and which is thought will have an impact on the dependent variable

Dependent variable

The variable which is being measured

Experiment theoretical considerations

-Positivists favour lab experiments as it scientific, reliable

-Interpretivists favour field experiments as it is less scientific, subjective, qualitative and valid

Advantages of lab experiments

Theoretical

-Easy to isolate variables, correlation, cause and effect

-Be repeated - reliable

Disadvantages of lab experiments

Theoretical

-Hawthorne effect may occur, if they know are being collected.

-Doesn't provide valid data and is too artificial

Ethical

-Informed consent not always given or right to withdraw

Practical

-Time consuming, costly.

Advantages of field experiments

Practical

-More natural and can see the whole picture

-Fewer resources required and costs less