APSUH Chapter 27-29

“Frontier Thesis”

the idea that the American frontier shaped the nation's character, democracy, and culture. Historian Frederick Jackson Turner proposed it in 1893, arguing that the frontier encouraged independence, innovation, and expansion.

The taking of Hawaii involved the U.S.-backed overthrow of Queen Liliʻuokalani in 1893 by American and European businessmen, who opposed her efforts to restore Native Hawaiian power. They established a provisional government, later forming the Republic of Hawaii under Sanford B. Dole. Though President Cleveland opposed annexation, the Spanish-American War (1898) increased Hawaii’s strategic importance, leading President McKinley to annex it via the Newlands Resolution. Hawaii remained a U.S. territory until it became the 50th state in 1959. The overthrow remains controversial, as many Native Hawaiians opposed it.

Descibe the taking of Hawaii

“Influence of Sea Power”

the ideas of Alfred Thayer Mahan, a U.S. naval officer and historian, who argued that a strong navy and control of maritime trade routes were key to national power. In his 1890 book, The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660–1783, Mahan claimed that dominant nations had always relied on naval supremacy. His theories influenced U.S. and global naval expansion, shaping policies that led to the buildup of the U.S. Navy, overseas imperialism, and control of strategic locations like Hawaii and the Panama Canal.

Bayonet Constitution

a document forced on King Kalākaua of Hawaii by American and European elites. It reduced the king’s power, gave more control to wealthy non-Hawaiians, and limited voting rights for Native Hawaiians. It set the stage for the U.S.-backed overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy in 1893.

Spanish-American War

a conflict between the United States and Spain, sparked by Cuba’s fight for independence and the explosion of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor. The U.S. quickly defeated Spain, gaining control of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, while Cuba became a U.S. protectorate. The war marked the U.S. as a rising world power and expanded its overseas influence.

DeLome Letter

a secret letter written by Enrique Dupuy de Lôme, the Spanish ambassador to the U.S. In it, he criticized President William McKinley, calling him weak and indecisive. When the letter was leaked to the press, it angered Americans and increased tensions with Spain, helping push the U.S. closer to war in the Spanish-American War.

Yellow Journalism

a style of exaggerated, sensationalized, and often misleading news reporting used to attract readers and influence public opinion. It played a major role in stirring American support for the Spanish-American War (1898) by publishing dramatic and sometimes false stories about Spanish atrocities in Cuba. Publishers like William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer used bold headlines and emotional stories to sell newspapers and shape public sentiment.

U.S.S Maine

a U.S. Navy battleship that exploded in Havana Harbor, Cuba, on February 15, 1898, killing over 260 sailors. The cause of the explosion was unclear, but yellow journalism blamed Spain, fueling American anger and pushing the U.S. into the Spanish-American War. The phrase "Remember the Maine! To hell with Spain!" became a rallying cry for war.

Teller Amendment

a resolution by the U.S. Congress stating that the United States would not annex Cuba after winning the Spanish-American War. It reassured Cuba and other nations that the U.S. was fighting for Cuban independence, not territorial expansion.

Platt Amendment

a U.S. law that set conditions for Cuba's independence after the Spanish-American War. It limited Cuba’s ability to make treaties, allowed the U.S. to intervene in Cuban affairs, and required Cuba to lease Guantánamo Bay to the U.S. for a naval base. Though Cuba was officially independent, the amendment kept it under U.S. influence until it was repealed in 1934.

Imperalists

Reasons: economic expansion, political security, international prestige, and humanitarian efforts

• believed the U.S. should expand its power globally, spreading democracy, gaining new markets, and securing strategic locations, often through colonization. They saw imperialism as a way to increase national strength and compete with European powers.

Anti-Imperalists

Reasons: undemocratic (self determination), violated republicanism, prevent influx of “inferior races” coming to US

• opposed imperialism, arguing it violated democratic principles, promoted military involvement, and forced foreign peoples under U.S. control without consent. They believed the U.S. should focus on domestic issues and avoid imperial expansion.

Open Door Policy in China

a U.S. proposal to allow all countries to trade freely with China, without any one nation controlling the trade. It aimed to prevent European powers and Japan from dominating China and to ensure equal economic opportunities for the U.S. in the region.

Jon Hay’s Open Door Notes

a series of diplomatic messages sent by U.S. Secretary of State John Hay to major world powers, urging them to allow all countries to trade freely with China and not establish exclusive control over Chinese markets. The notes aimed to protect U.S. economic interests in China and ensure that no single nation would dominate the region, promoting equal trade opportunities for all. While initially rejected by some countries, the policy helped establish the U.S. as a key player in global trade in Asia.

• Fed govt wanted to implement reform (no more corruption)

• Buisness - pools, trusts, monopolies = no more

• Society - improve poverty, labour, and living/working conditions

What were the three goals of the progressive movement?

Fourth Party System

refers to a period in U.S. politics marked by the dominance of the Republican Party. It began with the election of 1896, when William McKinley defeated William Jennings Bryan, and lasted until the Great Depression. During this time, the Republican Party generally supported business interests, tariffs, and economic growth, while the Democratic Partywas more focused on issues like agrarian reform and free silver. This era also saw the rise of political machines and a shift in voting patterns, with the Republicans controlling the presidency and most of Congress for much of the period. The system ended with the economic collapse of the Great Depression, leading to the rise of the New Deal coalition.

Election of 1896/1900

1896 - William McKinley (Republican) defeated William Jennings Bryan (Democrat) by emphasizing the gold standard and economic stability. McKinley’s victory marked the beginning of a Republican dominance in U.S. politics, with McKinley advocating for business interests and high tariffs. The election focused on economic issues, especially the debate over free silver versus the gold standard.

1900 - McKinley won re-election against Bryan once again, this time with a focus on imperialism following the Spanish-American War. McKinley’s support for U.S. expansion and control over territories like the Philippines played a central role in the campaign. McKinley’s victory solidified the Republican Party’s control and U.S. involvement in global affairs.

Muckraking

a form of investigative journalism in the early 20th century that aimed to expose corruption, social injustices, and abuses of power. Journalists known as muckrakers uncovered issues like poor working conditions, political corruption, child labor, and corporate monopolies. Their work, often published in magazines like McClure's and Collier's, helped raise public awareness and push for reforms. Famous muckrakers included Ida Tarbell, who exposed Standard Oil's monopolistic practices, and Upton Sinclair, whose novel The Jungle highlighted the dangerous conditions in the meatpacking industry.

Referendum

a direct vote by the people on a specific proposal or issue, rather than by elected representatives. It allows citizens to approve or reject laws, amendments, or policies. In a referendum, the government places a decision on the ballot for voters to decide, making it a form of direct democracy.

Recall

a process that allows voters to remove an elected official from office before their term ends. If enough people petition for it, a special election is held where voters decide whether the official should be removed and replaced. This gives citizens a direct way to hold public officials accountable for misconduct or poor performance.

Triangle Shirtwaist Company Fire

in New York City. A fire broke out in the factory, which was located on the top floors of a ten-story building. Due to poor safety conditions, including locked doors, narrow exits, and inadequate fire escapes, 146 workers, mostly young immigrant women, died from the fire or jumped to their deaths. The tragedy highlighted the dangerous working conditions in factories and led to significant reforms in labor laws, including improved workplace safety standards and the establishment of labor unions advocating for workers' rights.

Sqaure Deal - Control of Corporations

aiming to break up monopolies and regulate big businesses to ensure they did not exploit workers or consumers. Roosevelt used the power of the Sherman Antitrust Act to dissolve harmful monopolies, such as Standard Oil, and pushed for reforms to protect workers and consumers. His efforts helped promote fair competition, prevent unfair business practices, and improve conditions for workers.

Coal Strike of 1902

a major labor dispute between coal miners and mine owners in Pennsylvania. Miners, led by the United Mine Workers Union, demanded higher wages, shorter working hours, and better working conditions. The strike, which lasted for months, threatened to disrupt the coal supply, crucial for heating homes during the winter → management refuses but Roosevelt treatens to nationalize the mines and gives workers a 10% increase (they asked for 20) and gave them a 9/hr workday

Trustbuster

a person or government official who works to break up monopolies or trusts—large corporate combinations that eliminate competition and control markets. Theodore Roosevelt is famously known as a ——— for using the power of the federal government to regulate and dissolve monopolies during his presidency, particularly through the Sherman Antitrust Act. His administration took action against big companies like Standard Oil and Northern Securities Company, promoting fair competition and protecting consumers and workers from corporate abuses.

Elkins Act

a U.S. law aimed at curbing railroad monopolies and unfair practices. It targeted the practice of rebates, where railroads gave secret discounts to preferred customers, which harmed smaller shippers. ————- made it illegal for railroads to offer or accept rebates and imposed fines on companies that engaged in such practices. The law also empowered the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to better regulate railroad rates.

Hepburn Act

a U.S. law aimed at strengthening the regulation of railroads. It gave the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) the authority to set maximum railroad rates and expanded the ICC's power to oversee other industries like oil and shipping. The act also allowed the ICC to inspect railroad financial records to ensure that companies were not overcharging customers.

Sqaure Deal - Consumer Protection

Roosevelt sought to ensure the safety and well-being of consumers by pushing for laws that regulated food and drug industries. Notably, the Pure Food and Drug Act and the Meat Inspection Act, both passed in 1906, were critical components of this effort. These laws required that food and drugs be properly labeled and meet safety standards, and they established federal inspections of meatpacking plants to prevent unsanitary conditions. Roosevelt's consumer protection policies were aimed at ensuring that Americans were not exposed to harmful products and deceptive business practices.

Pure Food/Drug Act

a landmark law aimed at protecting consumers from unsafe food and drugs. It required that food and medicines be properly labeled, ensuring they were free from harmful ingredients and false claims. The act also prohibited the sale of adulterated or misbranded food and drugs.

Meat Inspection Act

a U.S. law aimed at ensuring the safety and quality of meat products. It required that meatpacking plants be inspected by federal agents to ensure sanitary conditions and that meat products were accurately labeled. The act was passed in response to the public outcry over Upton Sinclair's novel The Jungle, which exposed unsanitary and unsafe practices in the meatpacking industry.

Sqaure Deal - Conservatism

focused on preserving and managing the nation's natural resources. Roosevelt believed in balancing development with environmental protection. He expanded national parks, forests, and wildlife refuges, and worked to protect public lands from overuse and exploitation. Under his leadership, the U.S. Forest Service was established, and Roosevelt helped set aside approximately 230 million acres of land for conservation.

US Forest Service

a federal agency responsible for managing national forests and grasslands. It was established in 1905 by Theodore Roosevelt as part of his conservation efforts. The Forest Service is part of the Department of Agriculture and is tasked with protecting public lands, managing natural resources, conserving wildlife habitats, and overseeing sustainable forestry practices. The agency plays a key role in balancing the use of forests for recreation, timber, and conservation, ensuring that these lands are preserved for future generations.

Newlands Reclamation Act

a U.S. law that provided federal funding for the construction of irrigation projects in arid regions of the western United States. The goal was to transform dry, unproductive land into fertile farmland by providing water for agriculture. The act allocated money for the construction of dams, reservoirs, and canals to irrigate these lands, helping to settle the West and promote agricultural development. It was part of Theodore Roosevelt's broader conservation and development efforts, aimed at both managing natural resources and expanding the nation's agricultural capacity.

Antiquities Act

a U.S. law that gave the president the authority to designate public lands as national monuments to protect significant natural, cultural, or historic sites. The law was one of the first to protect archaeological sites and landmarks from destruction or exploitation. It allowed presidents to create national monuments without needing Congressional approval, as long as the sites were on federal lands. Theodore Roosevelt used the ———— to establish 18 national monuments, including the Grand Canyon, laying the groundwork for the future expansion of the national park system.

National Park Service

protect the U.S. national parks and other protected areas. The agency was created to ensure that these natural, cultural, and historic sites are preserved for future generations while providing opportunities for public enjoyment and education. The NPS oversees more than 400 sites, including national parks, monuments, battlefields, and historic sites. Its mission is to preserve the beauty and significance of these areas while balancing conservation with public access. The creation of the National Park Service was influenced by Theodore Roosevelt’s conservation efforts.

Progressive Environmentalism - Conservatism

referred to preserving and wisely managing these resources for future generations, rather than simply exploiting them for short-term gain.

Progressive Environmentalism - Preservation

believed that some areas of nature, like national parks, should be set aside and left untouched to protect their beauty and biodiversity for future generations.

Election of 1908

epublican William Howard Taft defeated Democrat William Jennings Bryan. Taft, backed by incumbent President Theodore Roosevelt, won 51.6% of the popular vote and 321 electoral votes, while Bryan received 43.1% and 162 electoral votes. This marked the fourth consecutive Republican victory and highlighted growing divisions within the Republican Party.

William Howard Taft

Taft continued many of Theodore Roosevelt's progressive policies, including trust-busting and promoting economic fairness, but his approach was more conservative. Taft focused on strengthening the regulatory powers of the government, notably through the Payne-Aldrich Tariff and efforts to break up monopolies. After his presidency, he became the only person to serve both as president and as Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court.

16th Amendment

fed govt graduated income tax

Dollar Diplomacy

policy implemented by President William Howard Taft during his administration (1909-1913). It aimed to expand U.S. influence abroad by using economic power rather than military force.

Attack the Tariffs, banks, and trusts

What were Woodrow Wilsons three main goals?

17th Amendment

direct election of senators

18th Amendment

Prohibition

19th Amendment

Women’s Suffrage

Woodrow Wilson

A Democrat, he is known for leading the country through World War I and advocating for the League of Nations in his Fourteen Points speech, though the U.S. did not join the League. Domestically, Wilson enacted progressive reforms, including the Federal Reserve Act, the Clayton Antitrust Act, and the 16th Amendment (which created the income tax). His presidency marked a shift toward a more active government role in both economic and international affairs.

Revenue Act

tariff rates, graduated income tax (populist ideas)

Clayton Anti-trust Act

prohibited price discrimination/monopolies, regulated mergers, recognized labour unions as legal entities

Fed Trade Commission

prevent unfair/deceptive buisness practices, enforce anti-trust laws, consumer complaints

Fed Resevre Act

dual mandate for long-run economic growth, low/stable inflation, low unemployment

Adamson Act

established 8hr workday for intertstae railraod workers

Keating-Owen Act

prohibited sale of goods produced by manufacturs of child labour

Fourteen Points

a set of principles proposed by Woodrow Wilson in 1918 to outline a fair and lasting peace after World War I. They included ideas for open diplomacy, freedom of the seas, self-determination for nations, and the creation of the League of Nations to prevent future conflicts. The points were meant to address the causes of the war and promote global stability.

Volstead Act

enforcement/regulation of prohibition

Temperance movement

reduction or complete prohibition of alcohol in the United States. It gained significant momentum during and after the war, as many believed alcohol was linked to social problems like domestic violence and poverty. This led to the passage of the 18th Amendment in 1919, which established Prohibition, making the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcohol illegal. The movement was driven by social reformers, religious groups, and women’s organizations, but Prohibition eventually led to unintended consequences, such as the rise of illegal alcohol trade and organized crime.

Booker T Washington

an African American educator, author, and leader who advocated for vocational and industrial education as a means for Black people to improve their social and economic status, founding the Tuskegee Institute.

W.E.B DuBois

blacks get full rights, economic/educational opportunity

Ida B. Wells

fought for anti-lynching laws

The Great Migration

blacks moved North because jobs are opening up due to WWI

liberal nationalism

• National self-determination

• Economic globilization

• Progressive ideology

• Collective Security (League of Nations)

Roosevelt Corollary

an addition to the Monroe Doctrine, announced by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1904. It stated that the U.S. had the right to intervene in Latin American countries to maintain stability and prevent European powers from intervening. It was used to justify U.S. involvement in the region, particularly in financial and political matters.

The Philippines was a Spanish colony until the U.S. took control after winning the Spanish-American War in 1898. Filipinos fought for independence in the Philippine-American War (1899–1902) but remained under U.S. rule until July 4, 1946, when the U.S. officially granted independence. This independence came after years of American governance, economic development, and resistance movements, particularly during World War II when Japan occupied the islands.

Describe the Phillippines and Independence.