Geography: Human Patterns, Migration, and Urbanization

Human Geography

Study of people and places, including how we make places, organize space and society, interact with each other, and make sense of ourselves in localities, regions, and the world.

Reference Maps

Maps used to show landforms and/or places.

Physical Map

Reference map that shows identifiable natural landmarks such as mountains, rivers, oceans, and elevation.

Political Map

Reference map that shows political boundaries, such as countries, cities, and capitals.

thematic maps

maps used to display specific types of information (theme) pertaining to an area

cartogram

thematic map that shows statistical data by transforming space e.g. population

choropleth map

thematic map that uses shading or coloring to show statistical data e.g. population

dot density map

thematic map that uses dots to indicate a feature or occurrence e.g. population

graduated symbols map (proportional symbols map)

thematic map that indicates relative magnitude of some value for a geographic region in which the symbol varies in proportion to data e.g. population

absolute distance

measurement using a standard unit of length e.g. mile, kilometer

relative distance

measurement of the social, cultural, and/or economic connectivity between places (how connected or disconnected) e.g. USA and Iran vs USA and China

absolute direction

finding a location using compass direction e.g. north, south, east, west

relative direction

finding a location not using compass direction e.g. left, right, forward, backward, up, down

spatial pattern

the way things are laid out and organized on the surface of the Earth

clustering

objects that form a group e.g. coastal population

dispersal

objects that are scattered e.g. rural population

elevation

height above sea level

spatial scale

hierarchy of spaces e.g. location of French speakers: global: in the world, regional: in North America, national: in Canada, local: in Quebec

map distortion

all maps are distorted as a result of projecting a 3-dimensional surface onto a 2-dimensional surface in area, distance, shape, and/or direction

map projection

a way to transfer the 3-dimensional earth onto a 2-dimensional map to reduce distortion in area, distance, shape, and/or direction

geographic data

information that identifies the geographic location of features and boundaries on earth (natural and constructed)

geospatial technologies

technology that provides geographic data that is used for personal (navigation), business (marketing), and governmental (environmental planning) purposes

GIS (Geographic Information System)

map created by a computer that can combine layers of spatial data; data is displayed and analyzed to gain insights into geographical patterns/relationships e.g. vulnerability of the Florida Aquifer, school boundaries, crime rates

satellite navigation systems

system of satellites that provide geo-spatial positioning e.g. GPS

remote sensing

collecting data with instruments that are distant from the area of study

types of Remote Sensors

satellites, planes, aircraft, spacecraft, ships, buoys

uses of Remote Sensing

Track storm systems, Search for natural resources, Military surveillance, Monitor volcanoes, Monitor deforestation/glacier melting

online mapping and visualization

compilation and publication of web sites that provide graphical and text information in the form of maps/visuals e.g. homicide statistics

census data

systematically acquiring and recording information about the members of a given population

satellite imagery

images of earth collected by satellites operated by governments and businesses around the world

absolute location

describes the precise location of a place using the Earth's Graticule (latitude & longitude) e.g. Palm Beach Gardens = 26°49′43′′N 80°06′36′′W

relative location

describes the location of a place relative to other human and physical features e.g. Palm Beach Gardens = north of West Palm Beach, south of Jupiter

space (geography)

relational concept that acquires meaning and sense when related to other concepts e.g. geographers study phenomena across space

place

describes an area on the surface of the Earth with distinguishing human & physical characteristics (place is space with meaning) e.g. Agra, India

pattern

an arrangement of objects on earth, including the space in between those objects

human-environment interaction

describes the ways humans modify or adapt to the natural world e.g. bridges, dams, houses, roads

distance decay

the idea that the likelihood of interaction diminishes with increasing distance

time-space compression

term that refers to the increasing sense of connectivity that seems to be bringing people closer together even though their distances are the same

time space convergence

term that refers to the greatly accelerated movement of goods, information, and ideas during the 20th century made possible by technological innovations e.g. TV, internet, satellite communication

movement (geography)

describes the ways in which people, goods, and ideas move from place to place

flows (geography)

movement in a steady stream e.g. migration

globalization

the process of increased interconnectedness among countries most notably in the areas of economics, politics, and culture

network

a system of interconnected people or things e.g. transportation, communication, financial, governmental

sustainability

meeting an increased demand for resources (energy, food, fuel) in a way that protects the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

natural resources

something found in nature and is necessary or useful to humans e.g. forest, mineral deposit, water

land use

the function of land e.g. agricultural, commercial, residential, transportation, recreation

environmental determinism

theory that a society is formed and determined by the physical environment, especially the climate; the physical environment predisposes societies towards particular development; human society development is controlled by the environment

possibilism

theory that the environment sets certain constraints or limitations but people use their creativity to decide how to respond to the conditions of a particular natural environment

Demographic Transition Model

describes the relationship between population and the development of a country and can be used to explain population change over time

total fertility rate (TFR)

the average number of children a woman will have during her childbearing years (15-49)

birth rate

number of live births in a single year for every 1000 people (in a population)

replacement fertility level

2.1 (slightly higher than 2.0 to account for infant/childhood mortality/childless women)

mortality (death) rate

number of deaths in a single year for every 1000 people (in a population)

infant mortality rate

number of deaths during the 1st year of life (per 1000)

child mortality rate

number of deaths of between the ages of 1 and 5 (per 1000)

maternal mortality rate

number of deaths during or shortly after childbirth (per 100,000)

emigration (out migration)

describes movement out of a particular place

immigration (in migration)

describes movement to a particular place

transnational migration

migration across national boundaries

internal migration

migration within national boundaries

natural increase

birth rate minus death rate

population doubling time

the length of time for a population to double in size

Ravenstein's laws of migration

every migration flow generates a return migration flow; most migrants move a short distance; migrants who move longer distances tend to choose big-city destinations; most migrants are from rural areas; migration is caused mostly by economic reasons

aging index

the number of people age 65 and older per 100 children ages 0-14

dependency ratio

a measure of the economic impact of younger and older cohorts on the economically productive members of a population

push factors

characteristics that make a person want to leave a place

pull factors

characteristics that attract a person to a place

intervening opportunity

the presence of a nearer opportunity that greatly diminishes the attractiveness of sites farther away e.g. finding a higher paying job en route to destination

intervening obstacle

an event or obstacle that discourages people from migrating e.g. cost, distance, language, laws

genocide

premeditated effort to destroy a national, ethnic, racial, religious group e.g. Rwanda, Holocaust, Cambodia

ethnic cleansing

the effort to rid a country/region of a particular ethnicity either through forced migration or genocide e.g. former Yugoslavia

forced migration

an individual migrates against his/her will, including events that produce slaves, refugees, internally displaced persons, and asylum seekers

refugee

individuals, protected by law, who cross national boundaries to seek safety from armed conflict or persecution e.g. race, religion, nationality, political opinion

asylum seeker

individuals who flee their home country and applies for protection, but their request for sanctuary has yet to be processed

internally displaced person (internal refugee)

individuals who leave their home due to conflict, human rights abuse, war, or environmental catastrophes, but do not leave their country to seek safety

voluntary migration

an individual chooses to move, typically based on various push-pull factors

transhumance

seasonal movement of pastoral nomads who move livestock between summer and winter pasture

chain migration

immigrants who follow family and/or friends to the same destination

step migration

migration to a distant destination that occurs in stages (steps)

guest workers

a person with temporary permission to work in another country (e.g. migrant labor)

rural to urban migration

the movement of people from the countryside to the city which causes two things to happen; increasing proportion of people living in towns and cities and expansion of urban areas

effects of migration

political increase in tax base; can affect political outcomes; strain on government resources; economic stimulate economy; innovation; consumption; fiscal burden; cultural cultural diversity; demographic shifts; change in culture (language, religion); discrimination; conflict

Rust Belt

area in the upper Midwest that had been an industrial powerhouse, but lost much of their economic base to other parts of the country and other parts of the world

Sun Belt

the states in the South and West Coast where in the 1960s and 1970s, large numbers of white, middle-class Americans moved from older northeastern and Midwestern cities

cohort

age group

culture

shared practices, technologies, attitudes, and behaviors transmitted by the members of a society that are not the result of biological inheritance (socially constructed)

ethnicity

a group of people who share a common cultural identity

race

historical classification that is used to categorize human populations with shared physical traits (not culture)

culture trait

a single attribute of a culture, such as food preferences, architecture, and land use

ethnocentrism

judging another culture based on the values of one's own culture (language, religion, customs)

cultural relativism

the idea that a person's beliefs, values, and practices should be understood based on that person's own culture, rather than be judged against the criteria of another

cultural landscape

the combination of physical features, agricultural and industrial practices, religious and linguistic characteristics, sequent occupancy, traditional and postmodern architecture, and land use patterns

sequent occupance

the combined imprint on an area when it has been inhabited by a succession of cultures e.g. buildings, transportation systems, farms, irrigation, recreation facilities

indigenous communities

the original settlers of an area (pre-invasion/colonialism) who have retained their culture apart from the colonizers

ethnic neighborhood

an area within a city occupied by a distinctive minority culture e.g. Little Italy in NYC

gender

social and cultural differences between males and females (not biological differences)

gender role

learned behaviors that are deemed appropriate to gender as determined by cultural norms

gendered spaces

areas in which gender expression is either welcome or unwelcome e.g. Muslim society: public space (employment, politics) belongs to men and private space (home) belongs to women

sense of place

term used to connote attachment to and comfort in a particular place with a strong identity that is deeply felt by inhabitants

strong sense of place

sense of place that is felt by visitors as well as inhabitants e.g. Amish country, Little Italy