Path to independence

What was the situation after Lexington and Concord in 1775?

At this point there was only a war between Britain and rebels in Massachusetts - not yet a war of American independence. The Massachusetts militia besieged the British Army in Boston, but this army emerged organically with no clear command structure.

Why was the First Continental Congress embarrassed after Lexington and Concord?

They had planned to pursue diplomacy, but war broke out despite their intentions. They "had egg on their face" because events moved without them - the country was going to war with or without the Continental Congress.

What was the main goal of the Second Continental Congress in May 1775?

Nobody was thinking about making history or creating a country. They were thinking "oh crap, what we had planned out isn't working, back to the drawing board." There was still no appetite for independence - they wanted to negotiate a settlement.

Why did the Second Continental Congress adopt the army besieging Boston?

To turn a problem into a solution. By putting the army under Continental command, they could show British leaders they had force to back them up, and signal solidarity among all colonies - hopefully forcing Britain to negotiate.

Why was Massachusetts nervous about having a New Englander command the Continental Army?

If they appointed a New Englander, the other colonies (especially more loyalist southern colonies) might see this as a Massachusetts war, not a war of all 13 colonies. They would lose the support of the rest of the country.

Why was George Washington chosen to command the Continental Army?

Not for tactical brilliance or sterling military reputation (his reputation from the French and Indian War was more notorious than brilliant). He was chosen to bring the southern colonies into the war as enthusiastic partners.

What were George Washington's qualifications for command?

He was from Virginia's planter aristocracy, very wealthy (politically savvy marriage to Martha Dandridge Custis), well-connected, and came to Congress in a snazzy military uniform. Benjamin Franklin said "he's the tallest man in the room, they're going to make him leader of something."

What frustrated Washington about commanding the Continental Army?

New England militia wanted explanations when given orders - they didn't respect hierarchy. Washington wanted a professional army like the British (a well-oiled machine), but that's not how America worked, especially in New England.

Why was John Adams' proposal of Washington as commander politically insightful?

It guaranteed the South felt they had a voice in military matters, and later Washington returned the favor by making Adams the first vice president after his presidential nomination.

Who was Thomas Paine?

A writer who was "extremely annoying in most circumstances" - the person who argues about everything. But he had talent for taking complex political ideas and simplifying them in plain language.

What was Common Sense (1776)?

A pamphlet by Thomas Paine that made the case for American independence AND argued that monarchies were bad and the U.S. should adopt a republican form of government - a very radical idea at the time.

Why was Common Sense influential?

Not necessarily because its ideas were unique, but because a LOT of people read it - one copy sold for every four out of five males in the colonies. Paine's ideas were talked about widely throughout the colonies.

How did Thomas Paine use the Scientific Revolution to argue for independence?

He asked: in what universe does a larger celestial body (the 13 colonies) orbit around a smaller one (Britain)? Based on Newtonian physics, this observation seemed like common sense (though black holes and neutron stars actually make this common).

What was the "myth about the Monarch" that many colonists believed?

That the king/emperor/tsar is a good person, and the only reason things are bad is because they're given terrible advice by corrupt ministers. If you could appeal directly to the monarch, they would intervene and fix everything.

What was the Olive Branch Petition (July 1775)?

A petition to King George III that affirmed loyalty to the monarchy, gave the king plausible deniability (blaming Parliament and bad advisers), and asked him to intervene against Parliament and recognize colonial assemblies as individual parliaments.

When did the Olive Branch Petition arrive at the king's doorstep?

Right as King George was getting news that 1,500 British soldiers had been killed, wounded, or captured at the Battle of Bunker Hill. The timing was terrible.

What was the Battle of Bunker Hill (Breed's Hill)?

The single bloodiest battle of the American Revolution. The British lost over 1,500 casualties attacking entrenched American positions. It wasn't militarily decisive but the bloodshed made everyone stop in their tracks.

How did the Battle of Bunker Hill change the debate about representation?

Before, it was an academic debate about virtual vs. actual representation. Then people started shooting each other. Once blood starts flowing, it's hard to have a polite academic discussion - people take getting shot at personally.

How did King George III respond to the Olive Branch Petition?

He accused the colonists of treason - not just rebels in New England, but the Continental Congress itself that was trying to prevent war. He didn't give them any choice but to embrace revolution.

What did Benjamin Franklin say about hanging together?

"We must all hang together or else we will surely hang separately." He was joking but also serious - whether you were loyalist-leaning or radical, you were all in this together now after being accused of treason.

Who were the Hessians?

Foreign mercenaries hired by the British, mostly from areas of southwest and central Germany (especially Hesse-Cassel). All German troops were called "Hessians" even though they weren't all from there.

Why did hiring Hessians shock Americans?

From the colonial perspective, this was a family dispute, and Britain was bringing in outside help. In American mythology, Hessians were supposed to be cold, cruel, disciplined killing machines (like the Headless Horseman in Sleepy Hollow).

What were the three major committees at the Second Continental Congress?

One: drafting the Articles of Confederation (first national government). Two: Foreign Relations (finding European allies). Three: drafting a declaration of independence (the breakup letter) - this was a distant third in priority.

Who was appointed to the committee to write the Declaration of Independence?

Benjamin Franklin (Middle Colonies), John Adams (New England), and Thomas Jefferson (South) - representing all regions. Franklin was expected to write it as the most well-known and eloquent person.

Why did Thomas Jefferson end up writing the Declaration of Independence?

Franklin was "old and lazy" and farmed it out. Adams said his work on Foreign Relations was too important. Jefferson was shy, introverted, young, and hadn't done much - "nobody really knew what else he was good for."

What did Jefferson produce that surprised Adams and Franklin?

Not just a statement of reasons for independence, but an argument for why the United States should exist as an independent country - more than they were prepared for given Jefferson's shyness and youth.

When was the Declaration of Independence adopted?

July 4, 1776. There was some behind-the-scenes haggling about accusing George of promoting the slave trade (since slavery was still popular in parts of the country).

What was the Articles of Confederation?

The first national government, eventually adopted in 1777. The Declaration of Independence was just a breakup letter - the Articles actually brought the colonies together as a country.

Why is the American Revolution called "the first Civil War"?

It was only a war between two countries after the fact. For many, this was a war fought by and for British subjects - just British subjects with different colonial identities.

What were the estimated loyalties during the Revolution according to the founders?

Roughly one-third were Tories/Loyalists, one-third were Whigs/Patriots, and one-third really didn't care one way or the other.

Who was General William Howe?

The British commander who replaced Thomas Gage. He was actually a Whig who sympathized with American colonists and "pulled his punches" to ensure reconciliation might be possible after the war.

What was ironic about Washington and Howe's political sympathies?

Howe was a Whig sympathizer commanding the British Army. Washington was an Anglophile right before the war. There's an alternate history about "General Sir Lord George Washington, Commander-in-Chief British Army North America."

What was Washington's initial strategy and why did it fail?

He tried to fight the British on British terms - lining up for conventional battles. But you can't imitate someone better than they can do it themselves. Most battles in the Revolution were actually British victories.

What was Washington's grade for tactics vs. strategy?

C-minus for tactics, A to A+ for strategy. He realized the core contradiction: Britain was fighting an expensive war to defend their right to make money through taxation - so just wait them out.

What was Washington's strategic insight?

This war was about taxation without representation. Does it make sense for the British to fight a long, expensive war to defend their right to tax? No. So don't lose, wait to get strong European allies, and let Britain exhaust itself.

What was the British strategy in the Revolution?

To embarrass Patriots in battle and convince them of the futility of resistance. They couldn't militarily subdue all of North America (too big, not enough money/manpower), but they could force a concession.

Who were typical Loyalists/Tories?

Aristocrats (especially Tidewater planters along coasts), southerners, Anglicans, royal officials, merchants with economic ties to Britain, and slaves (who the British promised to emancipate if they joined British regiments).

Who were typical Patriots/Whigs?

Middle-class merchants and artisans, more likely from New England (the region with the longest disagreements with Britain). The modal Patriot was a merchant, artisan, or middle-class person from New England.

Why did slaves tend to support the British?

The British offered general emancipation for slaves who joined British regiments. There were loyalist regiments of African-American troops. Southern planters saw this as an attempt to foment a general slave uprising.

Did Washington support arming slaves?

Yes, Washington supported arming slaves and providing emancipation for those who fought, but this was a response to British attempts to emancipate and arm slaves first.

How did the Revolution divide regions?

West was more Patriot, East more Loyalist. North more Patriot, South more Loyalist. It divided entire colonies and even families.

What happened between Benjamin Franklin and his son William?

William was the royal governor of Pennsylvania and a committed loyalist. After the war, he was forced to flee the country. Franklin refused to meet him one last time while negotiating peace - they never saw each other again.

Who was Chief Joseph Brant?

A Mohawk chief allied with Britain during the French and Indian War and the Revolution. His European name shows the impact of assimilation on eastern Native American tribes - it was becoming harder to tell the difference between Native Americans and whites.

Why did Native Americans side with the British?

They understood the British (through the Proclamation of 1763) were the power to side with if they wanted to prevent American westward expansion.

Who was Andrew Jackson as a boy during the Revolution?

He lived in Waxhaw, South Carolina. His mother Elizabeth told him "Girls were made to cry, not boys. Boys were made to fight." He and his siblings joined a local militia for protection.

What happened when Andrew Jackson was captured by the British?

A British officer ordered him to shine his shoes. Jackson refused and told the officer where to stick them. The officer swung his sword at Jackson's head - Jackson blocked with his hands but the blade still creased his skull.

What was the personal cost of the Revolution for Andrew Jackson?

None of his brothers survived the war, and his mother died on a British prison ship. He came out of the war completely alone. As president, he was convinced anything wrong was the British's fault and would unconsciously rub the crease in his skull.

What does Andrew Jackson's story illustrate about the Revolution?

The Revolution was not just a turning point for the country but for millions of ordinary Americans. It was a very violent war, especially in the South and West, not just a war of powdered wigs and gentlemanly civility.

What was Valley Forge?

A turning point in the war. The early war from 1775-1776 was actually a miserable failure, and Valley Forge represented one of the low points before things turned around.