unit 5+6

What two main regions made up the Polish state in the 17th century?

The Kingdom of Poland (in the west) and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (in the east).

What was the relationship between Poland and Lithuania?

Their crowns were joined in a dynastic union, creating the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

Which areas under Polish rule had largely non-Polish populations?

The Duchy of Prussia (mostly Germans), and the eastern regions (mostly Byelorussian and Ukrainian peasants under Polish and Lithuanian landlords).

Why was there no strong sense of national unity in Poland?

The population was ethnically and linguistically divided, and the official language of politics was Latin, not Polish.

Who made up most of the town populations in Poland, and what languages did they speak?

Towns were populated mainly by Germans and Jews; Jews spoke Yiddish (derived from German).

Why were Jewish communities so numerous in Poland?

Because Polish kings in the Middle Ages welcomed Jewish refugees fleeing persecution in Germany.

How were Jewish communities organized in Poland?

They lived in self-governing communities with their own laws, language, and religion, forming distinct “islands” of Orthodox Jewish life.

What created a strong social divide between town and countryside in Poland?

Townspeople were mostly Germans and Jews, while the countryside was Polish-speaking peasants, leaving no shared middle class.

What was the dominant religion in Poland?

Roman Catholicism.

🏰 The Polish Aristocracy and Political System

What class dominated Polish politics and society?

The landed aristocracy, known as the szlachta, who made up about 8% of the population.

How did the size of Poland’s nobility compare with that of Western Europe?

It was much larger — 8% compared to about 1–2% in most Western countries.

Why did some historians call old Poland a kind of “early democracy”?

Because its nobility insisted on political “liberties” and actively resisted central authority.

What system of monarchy did Poland have?

An elective monarchy — the king was chosen by the nobles and bound by strict contractual agreements.

What did these royal contracts (similar to the German “capitulations”) do?

They severely limited royal authority and prevented the establishment of absolutism.

How many native Polish kings ruled for any significant time after 1572?

Only two, including John Sobieski, the national hero who defeated the Turks in the 1680s.

⚖️ Weakness of Central Government

How did the Polish central diet (parliament) function?

It was made up of emissaries from local diets, bound by instructions from their regions — and could take no action unless every member agreed.

What was the liberum veto, and what effect did it have?

Any single member of the diet could veto proceedings and dissolve (“explode”) the entire session. This paralyzed government action.

How often did the liberum veto disrupt the diet?

Of 55 diets between 1652 and 1764, 48 were exploded.

Why did Poland fail to develop into a modern state?

The king had no real army, income, bureaucracy, or control over law courts — power was held by the aristocracy.

How did the Polish king’s revenue compare to that of other rulers by 1750?

About 1/13 of the tsar of Russia’s income and only 1/75 of the king of France’s.

Who controlled armed forces and foreign policy in Poland?

Individual aristocrats, each with private armies and their own alliances with foreign powers like Russia, Sweden, or France.

What was the condition of the peasants under this system?

They were reduced to deep serfdom — forced labor under landlords who had police and judicial powers over them.

⚔️ Decline and Partition Threats

Why was Poland described as a “political vacuum”?

Because its central government was paralyzed and powerless, leaving the state weak and divided.

Which two rising powers pressed hardest against Polish borders?

Prussia (Berlin) and Russia (Moscow).

What major territorial losses did Poland suffer by the mid-1600s?

In 1660, East Prussia became independent; in 1667, Russia took Smolensk and Kiev.

When did talk of partitioning Poland begin?

As early as the mid-17th century (around 1667), though actual partitions occurred a century later.

Why is Poland’s weakness considered historically significant?

Had Poland remained strong and centralized, Prussia might never have arisen, and Russia might not have become dominant in eastern Europe.

☪️ The Ottoman Empire (17th Century)

How did the Ottoman Empire compare to other European empires around 1650?

It was larger, better organized, and militarily stronger than the Holy Roman or Polish–Lithuanian Empires.

When did the Ottoman Turks first attack Vienna?

In 1529, under Suleiman the Magnificent.

What was the Ottoman Empire’s approximate extent around 1650?

From the Hungarian plain and south Russian steppes to Algeria, the upper Nile, and the Persian Gulf.

What was the key to Ottoman power and stability?

A strong, professional military system and a centralized administrative bureaucracy.

🛡️ The Janissaries and Military System

Who were the janissaries?

An elite, disciplined standing army originally made up of Christian boys taken as children, converted to Islam, and trained as soldiers.

Why were the janissaries considered an “ideal professional force”?

They had no private lives, families, or personal wealth — total loyalty to the state.

By the 17th century, why had the Ottoman army begun to decline in effectiveness?

It failed to modernize, while European armies improved their discipline, organization, and weapons.

⚖️ Religion, Law, and Administration

On what was Ottoman law based?

Islamic (Sharia) law, derived from the Qur’an.

What was the dual role of the Ottoman sultan?

He was both political ruler and caliph, the religious leader of Islam.

Who was the chief government officer under the sultan?

The Grand Vizier, who managed imperial administration and policy.

How did the Ottomans manage their diverse religious subjects?

Through the millet system — self-governing communities organized by religion (Greek Orthodox, Armenian Christian, Jewish).

How tolerant was Ottoman rule toward non-Muslims?

Relatively tolerant — Christians and Jews could maintain their faith and communities, though they had second-class status.

Why did the Ottomans prefer to rule Christian subjects rather than forcibly convert them?

Christians were more profitable as taxpayers and tribute payers.

🌍 Relations with Europe

What were the “capitulations” between the Ottoman Empire and France?

Treaties granting French merchants legal immunity and trade privileges within the Ottoman Empire (first signed in 1535).

How were these “capitulations” similar to later European privileges in Asia?

They were extraterritorial rights, allowing foreigners to live under their own laws — similar to later treaties in China.

Why didn’t the Turks initially resent these arrangements?

Because they saw them as normal diplomatic concessions — resentment only arose later under nationalist influences.

How did European Christians view the Ottomans during this period?

As the “terrible Turk” — both a religious threat and a feared military enemy.

⚔️ Decline of Central Authority and Renewed Wars

What caused Ottoman rule to become more oppressive in the 17th century?

Decline in central authority allowed local governors (pashas) to act independently and brutally.

What regions were least firmly under Ottoman control?

Border areas near Christian Europe — Hungary, Transylvania, Wallachia, Moldavia, and the Tartar khanates.

Who were the Köprülü viziers, and what did they do?

A powerful family of grand viziers who revitalized Ottoman military campaigns in central Europe from about 1650 to 1700.

When did the janissaries mobilize again in Hungary, reviving European fears?

In 1663, prompting alarm throughout Germany and Italy.

What was the “Turk Bell,” and why was it rung across Germany?

Church bells ordered by the emperor to warn of the advancing Ottoman armies.

Under whose leadership were the Turks ultimately repelled from central Europe?

Under the House of Austria (Habsburgs), not the Holy Roman Empire itself.

What major political shift allowed Austria to emerge as a new European power after 1648?

The collapse of the Holy Roman Empire’s power and the decline of Spain freed the Austrian Habsburgs to build a new, independent empire centered on the Danube.

How did the Thirty Years’ War affect the Habsburgs?

It ended their hopes of controlling Germany under the Holy Roman Empire, but strengthened their rule in their hereditary lands (Austria, Bohemia, and later Hungary).

What were the three main regions controlled directly by the Austrian Habsburgs?

The Hereditary Provinces (Austria, Tyrol, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola)

The Kingdom of Bohemia (Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia)

The Kingdom of Hungary (Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia)

🔹 The Ottoman Threat & the Defense of Vienna

When did the Ottoman Turks lay siege to Vienna for the second time?

In 1683.

Who led the successful defense of Vienna?

King John Sobieski of Poland, commanding a mixed Christian army (Polish, Austrian, and German troops).

Why was the Siege of Vienna significant?

It marked the last major Ottoman attempt to expand into central Europe and began the Habsburgs’ reconquest of Hungary and southeastern Europe.

🔹 Expansion Under Prince Eugene of Savoy

Who was Prince Eugene of Savoy, and why is he important?

A French-born general who served the Austrian Habsburgs; he modernized the Austrian army and led victories that expanded Habsburg control.

What decisive battle in 1697 drove the Ottomans out of Hungary?

The Battle of Zenta.

What treaty ended the war with the Ottoman Empire in 1699?

The Peace of Karlowitz, which gave Hungary, Transylvania, and Croatia to the Habsburgs.

Which treaty in 1739 finalized Austria’s frontier with the Ottoman Empire?

The Peace of Belgrade.

🔹 The Austrian Empire’s Character

By 1740, what territories made up the Austrian Empire?

Austria proper, Bohemia, Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium), Milan, and Naples.

What made the Habsburg Empire “international” or “cosmopolitan”?

It contained many ethnic groups—Germans, Czechs, Hungarians, Croats, Italians, and others—united only by loyalty to the Habsburg monarch.

What class held power within the empire?

A cosmopolitan aristocracy of landowners, often of mixed nationalities but loyal to the Habsburgs.

How did the Habsburgs treat Protestantism in Bohemia and Hungary?

They forcibly repressed it, confiscating Protestant lands and giving them to loyal Catholic nobles.

🔹 The Pragmatic Sanction (1713)

What was the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713?

A decree by Emperor Charles VI ensuring that all Habsburg territories were indivisible and could be inherited by a female heir if no male existed.

Who was the intended heir under the Pragmatic Sanction?

Maria Theresa, Charles VI’s daughter.

Why was the Pragmatic Sanction necessary?

The Habsburg male line was dying out, and Charles wanted to secure his daughter’s right to inherit all Habsburg territories intact.

How did Charles VI get other powers to accept the Pragmatic Sanction?

Through years of diplomacy and concessions—he persuaded European powers and internal diets to recognize Maria Theresa’s succession.

🔹 The Aftermath of Charles VI’s Death

When did Charles VI die, and what happened next?

He died in 1740; despite all agreements, his death triggered the War of the Austrian Succession as rival powers (Prussia, Bavaria, France) attacked.

Which regions revolted or tried to break away after his death?

Bohemia and almost Hungary.

What did the War of the Austrian Succession reveal about the Austrian Empire?

That it was powerful but fragile—held together mainly by dynastic loyalty rather than shared national identity.
🔹 The Great Elector (Frederick William, 1640–1688)

When did Frederick William (the Great Elector) come to power, and what was the context?

He became ruler of Brandenburg in 1640, during the Thirty Years’ War, when the country was devastated — Berlin’s population had dropped from 14,000 to 6,000.

What was Frederick William’s main conclusion after the Thirty Years’ War?

That survival required a strong, disciplined army; Prussia’s security depended on military strength rather than natural defenses.

What was the Great Elector’s long-term military and diplomatic strategy?

To maintain a standing army as a deterrent, use it for diplomatic leverage, and play larger powers (France, Sweden, Austria, Poland) against each other.

How did Brandenburg-Prussia become a kingdom?

In 1701, the Elector Frederick III agreed to support the Habsburg emperor with 8,000 troops in exchange for recognition as King in Prussia (later styled “King of Prussia”).

Why was becoming “King in Prussia” significant?

It elevated Brandenburg’s ruler above other German princes, signaling Prussia’s rise as an independent power.

🔹 The Prussian Military State

What made Prussia unique among European states?

The disproportionate size of its army compared to its population and wealth — the army was larger than the state itself in influence.

How did the army shape Prussian identity?

It became the first truly “all-Prussian” institution, uniting territories that had previously been separate (Cleves, Brandenburg, Prussia).

How central was the military to the state?

Civilian government existed mainly to serve and fund the army — the state revolved around military needs.

How did Prussia fund its army?

Through the crown domain (lands and enterprises owned by the ruler), taxes on goods, and state monopolies like salt sales — all revenue ultimately went to the army.

🔹 Economic & Social Foundations

Why did the Prussian economy grow under government direction?

There was little private capital, so the state sponsored industries, imported skilled workers, and managed economic life to support the army.

Which immigrants did the Great Elector encourage to settle in Brandenburg?

Swiss, Frisians, Jews from Poland, and especially French Huguenots fleeing persecution by Louis XIV (about 20,000 Huguenots came).

What role did the army play in Prussia’s economy?

It created demand for food, uniforms, weapons, stimulating early industrial growth in a poor, rural country.

🔹 The Junkers and Prussian Society

Who were the Junkers?

The Prussian landed aristocracy, especially from East Elbia (east of the Elbe River).

How did the Junkers fit into Prussia’s military system?

They were absorbed into military service as officers — nearly every noble family had members in the army.

What was the “deal” between the monarchy and the Junkers?

The king ruled absolutely, but allowed Junkers control over their peasants and guaranteed them officer positions in exchange for loyalty.

What social consequences did this system have?

Serfdom deepened; peasants were tied to the land.

Social mobility was limited — nobles stayed nobles, peasants stayed peasants.

The bourgeoisie (middle class) was weak and deferential, often serving as loyal government officials.

What kind of government developed in Prussia?

An efficient, honest civil service, loyal to the state but subordinate to the military and nobility.

🔹 Frederick William I (1713–1740)

What was Frederick William I’s personality and governing style?

Harsh, practical, anti-luxury — ruled like a fatherly drill sergeant, obsessed with discipline, economy, and the army.

How did he cut royal expenses?

He reduced the royal household budget by three-fourths and spent almost nothing on luxury or ceremony.

What was his nickname and obsession?

Known as the “Sergeant King,” he was obsessed with the army — particularly with his regiment of giant soldiers.

How large was the army under Frederick William I?

He doubled it from 40,000 to 83,000 soldiers — about one soldier for every 25 civilians, the highest ratio in Europe.

What was the canton system?

A recruiting system assigning each regiment to a specific district (canton), ensuring steady local manpower.

What did Frederick William I leave to his successor?

A large, disciplined army

A full treasury with 7 million thalers

A loyal bureaucracy and stable state

🔹 Frederick II (Frederick the Great, 1740–1786)

When did Frederick the Great come to power, and what opportunity did he seize?

In 1740, immediately after Charles VI of Austria died and Maria Theresa inherited under the Pragmatic Sanction.

What territory did Frederick the Great invade first?

Silesia, a wealthy province of Bohemia.

Why was the conquest of Silesia significant?

It doubled Prussia’s population, added key industries, and elevated Prussia to a major European power.

What war did this invasion trigger?

The War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748).

What was Prussia’s overall legacy by this point?

It became a model of discipline, efficiency, and military power — “a state built on a shoestring, but a triumph of work and duty.”
🔹 Peter’s Government Reforms

What happened to the old government institutions under Peter the Great?

Peter abolished the old duma and national assembly, replacing them with a Senate that was entirely dependent on him and divided Russia into 10 administrative “governments” (gubernii).