Learning Unit 6 - AP Psych

learning

the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.

A sophisticated process in which the responses of the organism are modifies as a result of experience

habituation

an organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it.

One of the simplest forms of learning in which an animal comes to ignore a persistent stimulus

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

The process by which a connection is made between two stimuli or a stimulus and a response; examples include classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response.

A change in an organism's surroundings that causes the organism to react

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language.

acquiring new behaviors and information through observation and information, rather than by direct experience

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.

Conditioning process in which an originally neutral stimulus, by repeated pairing with a stimulus that normally elicits a response, comes to elicit a similar or even identical response; aka Pavlovian conditioning

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

An approach to psychology that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the role of the environment as a determinant of behavior

neutral stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.

Any stimulus that does not normally produce a predictable response

unconditioned response (UR)

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US), (such as food in the mouth).

An unlearned response elicited by the presentation of an unconditioned stimulus.

unconditioned stimulus (US)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically - triggers a response (UR).

A stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

learned reflex response to a conditioned stimulus

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioned, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).

A previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response.

acquisition

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

The phase in which an organism associates the neutral stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus or the strengthening of a CR.

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning).

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when a unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

Disappearance of the conditioned response.

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

Recurrence of an extinguished conditioned response, usually following a rest period

generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

In classical conditioning, the process by which two distinct but similar stimuli come to produce the same response.

discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

In psychology, the process by which two similar but distinct conditioned stimuli produce different responses.

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished followed by a punisher.

Conditioning in which an increase or decrease in the probability that a behavior will recur is affected by the delivery of reinforcement or punishment as a consequence of the behavior

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

behaviors followed by pleasant consequences are strengthened while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences are weakened (Thorndike)

operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

A chamber also known as a Skinner box, containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, with attached devices to record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Used in operant conditioning research.

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

Act of following a response with a reinforcer.

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

Method of operant conditioning that shifts behavior toward a certain response by reinforcing successive approximations toward the desired behavior.

discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement).

a stimulus, associated with reinforcement, that exerts control over a particular form of behavior; the subject discriminates between closely related stimuli and responds positively only in the presence of that stimulus.

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

Presentation of a stimulus after a particular response in order to increase the likelihood that the response will recur

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Negative reinforcement is not punishment).

Removal of a stimulus after a particular response to increase the likelihood that the response will recur

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

Reinforcer that has survival value for an organism; this value does not have to be learned

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer.

stimulus change that functions as a reinforcer b/c of prior pairing with one or more other reinforcers - aka secondary or learned reinforcer

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

The frequency and regularity with which rewards are offered. Schedules can be based on a number of target behaviors (ratio) or on a time interval (interval).

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

the reinforcement of each and every correct response

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

Reinforcing a response only part of the time.

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

A reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer(reward) is delivered after a specified number of responses has occurred

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

A reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer (reward) is delivered after a predetermined but variable number of responses has occurred

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

A reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer (reward) is delivered after a specified interval of time, provided that the required response occurs at least once in the interval

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

Unpredictable amount of time must elapse before reinforcement

punishment

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.

A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior.

biofeedback

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension.

A process through which people receive information about the status of a physical system and use this feedback information to learn to control the activity of that system

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

Skinner's term for behavior learned through classical conditioning

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.

Behavior that is selected, maintained, and brought under stimulus control as a function of its consequences; each person's repertoire of operant behavior is a product of his history of interactions with the environment.

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

A map that is an individual's internal, geographic understanding of a place. Are formed when people perceive information about their surroundings and then process that information into a metal image that reflects both the physical environment and that individual's social, cultural, and psychological framework.

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

a change in behavior due to experience acquired without conscious effort, for example, a student using a quote in an exam essay that the student had never tried to memorize, though eh had encountered it in studying

insight

a sudden realization of a problem's solution.

grasping the underlying nature of a problem

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.

Motivation that leads to behaviors engaged in for no apparent reward except the pleasure and satisfaction of the activity itself

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.

Involves external incentives such as rewards and punishments

coping

alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods.

Process by which a person takes some action to manage, master, tolerate, or reduce environmental or internal demands that cause or might cause stress and that tax the individual's inner resources

problem-focus coping

attempting to alleviate stress directly - by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.

Dealing with the stressor directly to change the situation.

emotion-focus coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction.

Managing ones emotional reactions to stressful situation

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.

A condition that occurs after a period of negative consequences where the person begins to believe they have no control.

external locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate.

this term describes when you feel that your behaviors are driven mainly by outside forces

internal locus of control

the perception that you control your own fate.

The perception that we are in control of our destiny

self-control

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards.

A person's ability to "delay gratification" by emitting a response that will produce a larger (or higher quality) delayed reward over a response that produces a smaller but immediate reward (sometimes considered impulse control).

observational learning

learning by observing others. Also called social learning.

A type of learning that occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models.

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

Learning that consists of witnessing another person's actions, retaining information on that behavior, and re-enacting what was learned.

mirror neurons

frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's actions may enable imitation and empathy.

Specialized nerve cells that fire when a person is completing an action and when the person observes someone else completing the same action.

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.

socially desirable behavior that benefits others