PSYCH 1000 test 2

Emerging Adulthood

Period of life between 18 & 25 when many aspects of life become solidified (emotional development, identity & personality)

Stranger anxiety

The fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

Self-control

The ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards

Children of divorce

Exposure to parental conflict, economic hardships, increased stress, emotional problems, more likely to become delinquents, less likely to complete education, more likely to get divorce. 75 to 80% don’t suffer long term harm.

Uninvolved parenting style

Neglectful parents, ignore children, pays little attention to positive and negative behaviors

Authoritative parenting style

Parents give children reasonable demands and consistent limits, express warmth and affection, and listen to the child’s point of view

Authoritarian parenting style

Parenting style in which parents are demanding and unresponsive toward their children’s needs or wishes

Permissive parenting style

A parenting style that allows freedom, law parenting that doesn’t set limits or enforce rules constantly

Parenting styles

Diana Baumrind

Anxious attachment

Demonstrated by babies who seem constantly afraid of potential separation from the caregiver; they cling to caregivers in strange settings and display intense distress upon separation

Avoidant attachment

Infants who seem unresponsive to the parent when they were present, are not usually distressed when she leaves, and avoid the parent when they return

Secure attachment

Demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregivers, show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in the caregiver’s return

Temperament

Basic emotional style that appears early in development and is largely genetic in origin

Two-world stage

They start uttering two word sentences

One-word stage

The stage in which children speak mainly in single words

Babbling

Intentional vocalization that lacks specific meaning

Cognitive Development

Study of how children acquire the ability to learn, think, reason, communicate, and remember

Puberty

The period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

Adolescence

The transition period from children to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

Fetal alcohol syndrome

Physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking

Teratogens

Agents that damage the process of development, such as drugs or viruses

Zygote

Fertilized egg

Germinal stage

The 2-week period of prenatal development that begins at conception

Blastocyst

Ball of identical cells that have not yet begun to take on any specific function in a body part

Embryo

The developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month

Fetal stage

The third stage of prenatal development, lasting from 2 months through birth

Longitudinal design

Research design that examines development in the same group of people on multiple occasions over time

Cross-sectional design

Research design that examines people of different ages at a single time

Nature vs nurture

Heredity vs environment

Gene-environment interaction

Situation in which the effects of genes depend on the environment in which they are expressed

Developmental psychology

The study of how behavior changes over the lifespan

Distributed practice

Spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods

Testing effect

Test yourself frequently on the material

Elaborative rehearsal

Connect new knowledge with existing knowledge rather than simply memorizing facts

Mnemonic devices

Cues or reminders you can connect from your knowledge to new material

Misinformation effect

Occurs when misleading information has distorted one’s memory of an event

Suggestive memory technique

Procedure that encourages patients to recall memories that may or may not have taken place

Cryptomnesia

Mistakenly forgetting that one of “our” ideas originated with someone else

Imagination inflation

Imagine or visualize something that isn’t real

Source monitoring confusion

Lack of clarity about the origin of a memory

Flashbulb memories

Detailed recollections of when and where we heard about shocking events

Deep processing

Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of words: tends to yield the best retention

Shallow processing

Encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

Proactive interference

Old information that you already have learned makes it difficult to remember new information (calling your new bf by ur exes name)

Retroactive interference

New information makes it harder to remember old information (forgetting your old phone number after learning new your new one)

Decay

Fading away of information from memory overtime

Infantile amnesia

The inability to remember events from early childhood

Meta-memory

Knowledge about our own memory abilities and limitations

Anterograde amnesia

An inability to form new memories

Retrograde amnesia

Loss of memories from our past

Long-term potentiation

An increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid simulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

State-dependent learning

Superior retrieval of memories when the organism is in the same physiological or psychological state as it was during encoding

Context dependent learning

Superior retrieval of memories when the external context of the original memories matches the retrieval context

Encoding specificity

Phenomenon of remembering something better when conditions under which we retrieve information are similar to the conditions under which we encoded it

Tip of the tongue phenomenon

Experience of knowing that we know something but being unable to access it

Relearning

A memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

Recognition

Selecting previously remembered information from an array of options

Recall

Generating previously remembered information on our own

Retrieval cue

Anything that helps a person recall information stored in long term memory

Schema

A concept or framework that organizes and helps interpret information

Storage

The process of retaining encoded information over time

Method of Loci

A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations

Mnemonic device

Learning aid, strategy, or device that enhances recallE

Encoding

Process of getting information into our memory banks

Priming

Our ability to identify a stimulus more easily or more quickly after we have encountered similar stimuli

Procedural memory

A type of long-term memory of how to preform different actions and skills. Essentially it is the memory of how to do certain things

Implicit memory

Memories we don’t deliberately remember or reflect on consciously

Explicit memory

The act of consciously or intentionally retrieving past experiences

Episodic memory

The collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

Semantic memory

Memory for knowledge about the world

Serial position curve

Graph depicting the effect of both primacy and recent on people’s ability to recall items on a list

Recency effect

Tendency to remembers words at the end of a list

Primacy effect

Tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list

Perma store

Type of long-term memory that appears to be permanent

Long-term memory

A type of storage that holds information for hours, days, weeks, or years

Levels of processing

Information that is thought of more deeply becomes more meaningful and thus better committed to memory

Elaborative rehearsal

A memory technique that involves thinking about the meaning of the term to be remembered as opposed to simply repeating the word to yourself over and over again

Maintenance rehearsal

Repeating stimuli in their original form to retime them in short-term memory (phone number)

Chunking

Organzing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

The magic number

7±2

Echoic memory

Auditory memories that can last as long as 5-10 seconds

Short term memory

Activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as 7 digits of a phone number which dialing, before the information is stores or forgotten

Sensory memory

The immediate, initial recording or sensory information in the memory system.

Iconic memory

A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic of picture-image memory lasting no more than a few 10s of a second

Memory illusion

A false but subjectively compelling memory

Memory

The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

Insight learning

The process of learning how to solve a problem or do something new by applying what is already know

Mirror nuerons

Frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s actions may enable imitation and empathy

Observational learning

Learning by watching others

Cognitive maps

A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment

Latent learning

Learning that isn’t directly observable

Partial reinforcement (intermittent reinforcement)

Occurs when we reinforce responses only some of the time

Continuous reinforcement

Reinforcing behavior every time it occurs

Variable vs fixed

Variable schedules are more distant to extinction than fixed schedules, and all partial reinforcement schedules are more distant to extinction than continuous reinforcement

Interval vs ratio

Interval: based on time intervals Ratio: based on number of behaviors

Discrimitve stimulus

Any stimulus that signals the presence of reinforcement N

Negative punishment

The removal of a stimulus to decrease the probably of the behaviors recurring

Positive punishment

The administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior’s recurring

Negative reinforcement

The reinforcement of a response by the removal, escape from, or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus (applying sunscreen to avoid burning)

Positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is an stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response