Ap psychology Unit 4

Learning

Definition: The process of acquiring through experience

Associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning).

Stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response.

Respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

Classical conditioning

a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with Pavlov's classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food).

Pavlov

study how organisms respond to stimuli in their environments

Behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Neutral stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.

Unconditioned response (UCR)

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth).

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an unconditioned response UR).

Conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).

Acquisition.

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

Higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

Extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

Spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

Generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (In operant conditioning, 760 generalization occurs when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations.)

Discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced.)

Operant conditioning

a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher.

Law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

B.F. Skinner

dismissed introspection and redefined psychology as "the scientific study of observable behavior."

Skinner Box

The box has a bar (a lever) that an animal presses—or a key (a disc) the animal pecks—to release a reward of food or water. It also has a device that records these responses.

Reinforcement.

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

Shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

Discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement).

Positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

Negative reinforcement.

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing aversive stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

Primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

Conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer.

Reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

Continuous reinforcement schedule

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

Partial reinforcement schedule

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

Fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

Variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

Variable-interval schedule.

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

positive punishment

Administer an aversive stimulus.

Negative punishment

Withdraw a rewarding stimulus.

Biofeedback

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension.

Cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

Instinctive drift

instinctive drift the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns.

Latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

Insight

a sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions.

Intrinsic Motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.

Extrinsic motivation.

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.

Learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or person learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.

External locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate.

Internal locus of control

the perception that we control our own fate.

Social or observational learning

learning by observing others. (Also called social learning.)

Mirror neurons

frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy.

Prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.

Learning

Definition: The process of acquiring through experience

Additional information: The three types of learning are classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning.

Associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning).

Stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response.

Respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

Classical conditioning

a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with Pavlov's classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food).

Pavlov

study how organisms respond to stimuli in their environments

Behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Neutral stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.

Unconditioned response (UCR)

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth).

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an unconditioned response UR).

Conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).

Acquisition.

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

Higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

Extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

Spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

Generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (In operant conditioning, 760 generalization occurs when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations.)

Discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced.)

Operant conditioning

a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher.

Law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

B.F. Skinner

dismissed introspection and redefined psychology as "the scientific study of observable behavior."

Skinner Box

The box has a bar (a lever) that an animal presses—or a key (a disc) the animal pecks—to release a reward of food or water. It also has a device that records these responses.

Reinforcement.

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

Shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

Discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement).

Positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

Negative reinforcement.

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing aversive stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

Primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

Conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer.

Reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

Continuous reinforcement schedule

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

Partial reinforcement schedule

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

Fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

Variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

Variable-interval schedule.

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

positive punishment

Administer an aversive stimulus.

Negative punishment

Withdraw a rewarding stimulus.

Biofeedback

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension.

Cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

Instinctive drift

instinctive drift the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns.

Latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

Insight

a sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions.

Intrinsic Motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.

Extrinsic motivation.

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.

Learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or person learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.

External locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate.