UNIT6) VOCAB ONE

Britain was first to industrialize

Britain had key advantages: abundant coal and iron, stable government, capital from trade and empire, strong banking system, agricultural revolution, and access to overseas markets.

Industrial Revolution

Period of rapid industrialization beginning in Britain in the late 18th century marked by mechanization, factory production, and new energy sources.

Putting-out system

Pre-industrial system where merchants provided raw materials to rural households who produced goods at home; later replaced by factories.

James Hargreaves – Spinning Jenny, 1765

Invention that allowed one worker to spin multiple threads at once, increasing textile production and efficiency.

Richard Arkwright – Water Frame

Water-powered spinning machine that produced stronger yarn and promoted the factory system.

Edmund Cartwright – Power Loom

Mechanized weaving loom that greatly increased textile output and reduced reliance on skilled labor.

Pig iron

Crude iron produced in a blast furnace; later refined into wrought iron or steel for industrial use.

Influence of coal

Coal replaced wood as the primary fuel; powered steam engines and iron production, driving industrial growth.

Thomas Newcomen – Steam engine, 1705

Early steam engine used mainly to pump water out of mines; inefficient but foundational.

James Watt – Steam Engine (improved), 1760s

Improved Newcomen’s engine by adding a separate condenser; made steam power practical for factories and transport.

Steam power

New energy source that allowed factories to operate anywhere and greatly increased productivity.

Coke

Coal-derived fuel that burned hotter and cleaner than charcoal; revolutionized iron production.

Henry Cort – Puddling furnace

Process that removed impurities from pig iron to create stronger wrought iron.

Locomotive

Steam-powered rail vehicle that revolutionized land transportation by increasing speed and lowering costs.

George Stephenson – The Rocket, 1830

Successful steam locomotive that demonstrated the viability of railroads for passenger and freight transport.

Manchester Railway (Liverpool to Manchester)

First major railway line connecting two industrial cities; symbolized the transportation revolution.

Steamship

Steam-powered vessel that improved reliability and speed of water transport regardless of wind.

The Great Exhibition

1851 world’s fair in London showcasing industrial achievements; celebrated British industrial dominance.

Crystal Palace

Glass and iron structure built to house the Great Exhibition; symbol of industrial progress.

Thomas Malthus

Economist who argued population grows faster than food supply, leading to poverty and famine unless checked.

David Ricardo – Iron Law of Wages

Theory stating wages naturally fall to subsistence level because higher wages lead to population growth.

Subsistence level

Minimum income needed for workers to survive.

Second Industrial Revolution

Late 19th-century phase marked by steel, electricity, chemicals, and oil; focused on heavy industry and mass production.

Putting-out enterprise

Early form of industrial organization where production occurred outside factories under merchant control.

Tariff protection

Government taxes on imported goods to protect domestic industries.

Zollverein (Germans)

Prussian-led customs union that eliminated internal tariffs among German states, promoting economic unity.

Economic nationalism

Policy of using state power to promote national economic interests through tariffs, infrastructure, and industry.

Cotton mills

Large factories where cotton textiles were spun and woven; central to early industrialization.

Pauper children / orphan children

Children taken from workhouses to labor in factories and mines due to cheap labor demand.

13–14 hours a day

Typical length of factory workdays during early industrialization, including for women and children.

Steam power

Allowed mechanization of production and independence from natural energy sources like water.

The “working class”

Industrial laborers who sold their labor for wages; lived in urban areas and faced poor working conditions

• Proletlariat

Robert Owen

Social reformer and factory owner who advocated improved working conditions and education for workers.

Factory Acts / Factory Act of 1833

British laws limiting child labor and establishing government inspection of factories.

Separate spheres (gender)

Ideology that men belonged in public work and politics while women belonged in the private domestic sphere.

Mines Act of 1842

British law banning women and young children from working underground in mines.

Combination Acts, 1799

Laws that banned trade unions and collective bargaining; repealed in 1824.

Robert Owen – New Harmony

Utopian socialist community in the U.S. founded by Owen; ultimately failed.

Chartist movement

British working-class movement demanding political reforms such as universal male suffrage and secret ballots.