WH Midterm Review

Goals of Enlightenment thinkers

Goals of Enlightenment thinkers

• Enlightenment thinkers aimed to improve human conditions and vouch for human freedoms (life, liberty prosperity)

• Valued natural rights, reason, and science more than the afterlife and religion

  • Support of religious tolerance (accepting that others have different beliefs)

Natural rights

definition: rights not dependent on laws put in place by the government (aka rights you are born with)

• includes life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness

• or as John Locke wrote: “life, liberty, and property” (which can never be taken away)

Who paid the Burden of taxation before the revolution?

• nobles and clergy members were exempted from paying taxes

• instead, peasants, wage-earners, and professional/business classes had the burden of paying the taxes (aka the third estate)

Which estate had the largest population and the least amount of power?

• the third estate had the largest population (around 27 million people/98% of France’s population)

• size aside, they had no power in or influence on the government

  • they had no rights or privileges and their say in parliament was unaccounted for

Estates general and the voting issues- tennis court oath

• estates general: took place in 1789

  • it was a meeting between the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd estates (clergy, nobility, and peasants)

  • King Louis XIV called for the meeting to target societal/financial issues

  • the peasants/third estate was left unrepresented, so they broke apart and formed the National Assembly

• tennis court oath:

  • the National Assembly was locked out of the regular meeting hall by the King and given directions to disband the group

  • they moved to a local tennis court where they took an oath to never disband unless France established a written constitution to address societal issues

National Assembly

a government group set up by the third estate of France during the revolution

• was set up as a protest to the constant misrepresentation of the poor class in government meetings

Purpose of the storming of the Bastille

• marked the beginning of the French revolution

• French revolutionaries stormed the Bastille (a political prison) to look for gunpowder to destroy it

  • the Bastille represented the king’s abuse of power and torture of the prisoners and people

Declaration of the Rights of Man

• equal rights for man (natural and inalienable rights)

  • freedom, ownership, security, and resistance to oppression

  • purpose: to affirm the separation of power in society and place reason behind human affairs

• controversial because it only applied to “man” (not women, peasants, etc…)

Reign of Terror and the purpose of the killings

• a period of mass executions and violence during the French Revolution

• anybody suspected of opposing revolutionary ideas was publicly executed (usually by guillotine or by being beaten in the streets)

  • began and ended with Robespierre (who ended up being executed by guillotine; people wanted to put an end to the reign of terror, so they overthrew him)

Why did other monarchies fear the spread of revolution?

monarchs and nobles in other European countries feared that people would see the French Revolution and be inspired to do the same in their own countries

• kings feared being overthrown by their people

Downfall of Napoleon

• Napoleon became very fearful of the people around him and who he was able to trust

  • he replaced leaders in France with his family members and friends, who he thought were more trustworthy

• he tried to take down Russia, but his army failed and many soldiers starved during the harsh Russian winter

• he was forced to abdicate his throne after multiple failures

  • he was exiled, escaped out of exile, and then exiled again

Napoleonic Code

• a set of laws concerning family affairs, property, and individual rights

  • included:

    • men would have more authority over their families and women

    • women deprived of individual rights (only existing for having children)

    • male citizens granted equal rights

Napoleon’s lasting achievement

Napoleon spread French revolutionary ideas throughout France and the world

• his Napoleonic Code outlined the French legal system and formed the foundation for French civil law

Napoleon- hero or tyrant?

Could be both:

Hero:

• he spread revolutionary ideas across Europe/France

• his domestic policies were praised and he aimed to reform the French economy

Tyrant:

• he was brutal towards his soldiers and pushed their limits

• he was very narcissistic and promoted himself using media censorship and false reports that everything was going well

  • he lacked respect for women and was known for taking away female individual rights

Congress of Vienna-  chief goals of the Congress

• restore peace and stability in Europe

• punish Napoleon for his actions

  • balance power between European nations

Liberal v. conservative during this period

Liberals:

• did not want an elected parliament

• believed in personal freedom

• wanted to eliminate government

• wanted stronger governments and individual rights

• believed in reform and change for the people

• can also be called “loyalists” because of their loyalty to the monarchy

• likely to believe in an absolute monarchy

Conservatives:

• loyal to the restoration of the monarchy

• showed support for the role of the Catholic Church

• more likely to be wealthy/higher up in the social hierarchy

Capitalism

definition: an economic system where the means of production are held by private individuals or organizations

benefits:

• profit

• encourages rapid economic growth and efficient production

• rewards innovation

• offers social and financial freedom

detriments:

• monopoly power (companies who are the sole providers of a product or service have full control over a specific market)

• wealth can be inherited leading to wealth inequality/class division

• creates an economy based on consumption

• people who are not productive are left behind

Communism

definition: an economic system focused on creating and sharing wealth; the government or whole community is in charge of land, factories, etc…

benefits:

• people are equal

• every citizen can keep/have a job

• strong social communities established

• efficient resource distribution

detriments:

• restrictions of human rights (freedom of speech, etc…)

• the government owns all the means of production

• can lead to totalitarianism

Karl Marx

German philosopher

His beliefs:

• believed in a classless system

• to make change there needs to be revolution

conflicts/struggle between classes is inevitable

• saw capitalism as a progressive historical stage that would be followed by socialism (it would be overthrown)

• communism would become a global movement

Famous quote:

“working men of all countries unite”

Proletariat

workers or working-class people who earn a wage for a living (think manual, daily, and casual labor)

Bourgeoisie

those who make their living through property or ownership of means of production

Adam Smith and the Wealth of Nations

Wealth of Nations: the book Smith wrote about economics/society

beliefs:

• individuals need to fulfill self-interest

• the force behind this fulfillment was called the “invisible hand”

  • the greater social benefits brought about by people acting in their own self interests

Laissez-faire

real translation: “allow to do”

definition: a policy of minimal government interference in the economic affairs of individuals/society

small scale ex: supervisors letting their employees make decisions/set their own deadlines

Urbanization

increasing the population of people living in towns and cities (moving then from rural areas)

ex:

• building apartment buildings for people to live & work in the city

  • more job opportunities closer to the city

Factory system

factories: areas where products could be mass produced and worked on by many people at once (compared to before when people worked in their homes)

• hard manual labor

• small pay

• difficult working conditions

  • increased production

Changes brought by Industrial Rev.

• increased production and efficiency

• lower prices

• more goods

• improved wages

• migration from rural areas to urban areas

• many machine inventions (spinning jenny, cotton gin, crop rotation, flying shuttle)

• the use of steam power and new forms of power

Nationalism

definition: the idea that one’s country is better than any other; great pride in one’s country

bring together nations:

• bonds people through shared ethnic identity

• encourages people to work for a shared common good

• encourage collective solidarity

• feeling of community

bring people apart:

• bring forth the idea that everyone else (other countries) is inferior

• promotes hatred among nations

  • can lead to isolationism

Bismarck, Blood and Iron, creation of Germany

Otto Von Bismarck:

• served as the Prussian prime minister

Blood and Iron:

• the name of Von Bismarck’s speech about German unification

  • blood = military

  • iron = industry

• meaning: the unification of Germany would be brought upon by the strength of the military forged in iron and blood spilled through warfare

Creation of Germany:

• achieved under Von Bismarck’s rule

• after the Franco-Prussian war, the German Empire was proclaimed and German foreign policy was created along with a German kaiser

Imperialism and reasons for it

definition: when a country extends its power and culture to other countries by force

reasons for it:

• to spread religious beliefs (ex: the US spreading Christianity to other countries)

• increased economic power (ex: native cultures/industries were destroyed, imported goods took the place of local products, and the imperialized areas were instead used for raw source material, therefore not allowing them to develop industries themselves)

  • to spread culture (ex: making other countries learn English and use it daily)

White Man’s Burden

the idea that European countries have a duty to help uncivilized nations; in relation to white people feeling the need to assist non-white people (ie: teach them English, “improve” their lives)

Social Darwinism and Africa

the idea that humans who do better in society become more powerful

• “survival of the fittest”, but applied to human life

• poor people/workers would not be able to survive, while more fortunate people who had property and status would live well

Africa:

• Europeans viewed Africa as inferior and deemed that Africans needed the assistance of more fortunate Europeans

• missionaries were sent to Africa to spread Christianity; attempts at imperialization were met with negativity

• the Africans tried to fight Europeans guns with swords and shields, resulting in the deaths of many Africans

  • Europeans tried to justify taking over Africa by saying they were “saving them from slavery”

Berlin conference

• leaders of 14 European countries discussed control of Africa and its resources

• African reps were notably missing from this meeting

• each European country claimed that taking over parts of Africa would “civilize” it

• the natural resource digging done by these countries resulted in environmental damage and slave labor

Causes/Results of imperialism Sepoy Rebellion

Causes of imperialism:

• economic pressures

• the drive for power- gaining influence and control over other territories would increase the power of the imperializer

• humanitarianism- European imperializers felt like they needed to “civilize”/”save” non-white populations and expose them to new cultural practices and languages

Results:

• improved quality of life for some- some areas benefitted from exposure to new ways of life and social reform

• loss of native culture and industry:

  • natives were sometimes forced to give up their cultures/languages for the imperializer’s clture

  • natives were forced to do hard labor for the extraction of natural resources for imperializers

    • this prevented them from developing/working on their own industries

Sepoy Rebellion:

• a widespread but unsuccessful rebellion against British rule in India

  • British dominance was introduced to Indian political/social life- India was growing concerned about Westernization

  • it was thought that the British wanted to undermine traditional Indian society

The British in China/Opium War

British in China:

• there was a high demand for Chinese tea, silk, and porcelain in the British market, Britain did not possess sufficient silver to trade with China

• the British believed the Chinese to be uncooperative

Opium War:

• war between China and Britain

• China wanted to suppress opium trade

• primarily British traders had been illegally exporting opium from India to China

• this resulted in widespread addiction and social/economic disruption

  • the Chinse gov. confiscated/destroyed tons of opium

• Chinese officials were held at gunpoint and signed a treaty allowing free trade/trade of opium from the Chinese

Sphere of Influence/China

definition: an area in which the power or interests of a country or an organization are of greatest importance

• after China lost 2 opium wars, foreign imperial powers began developing spheres of influence on its borders

• mainly France, Britain, Germany, Russia, and Japan

Positive/negative results of imperialism

Positive:

• underdeveloped countries/developing countries gained access to new technology (better education and opportunities)

• improvement of standard of living

• exposure to new cultures and ethnicities

Negative:

• no freedom (people were punished if they opposed imperializers)

• exploitation (using countries for resources and preventing them for developing their own industries; only using them to develop imperialized industries)

• confict (revolts against the imperializers/many deaths, ideas of racism: imperializers feeling superior to the imperialized)

• forced ways of life (having to let go of native culture, language, and religion to be replaced with new foreign ones)

The causes of WWI (MAIN)

MAIN:

• militarism (the increase of military/big armies showcased potential threats to other countries; surrounding countries started to do the same and grow their armies as a result)

• alliances (the idea that if one country joined the war, their allies would as well, and so would the allies of the allies; created a global conflict)

• imperialism (countries would use areas they imperialized to grow their armies, the expansion of empires increased tension between other European countries)

• nationalism (each country wanted to be the best, but every other country thought the same; not all countries could be the best, so they would fight for that position)

What specific event sparked the Great War?

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

• he was next in line to take the throne of Austria

• on a trip to Sarajevo, Serbia, him and his wife were shot to death by Bosnian-Serb nationalist Gavrilo Princip (member of the Black Hand group)

• all because of a wrong turn made by the driver

  • this sparked a chain of events leading to WWI

Trench warfare/Western Front

Trenches:

• deep maze-like holes in the ground that were used for fighting in WWI

• constructed with sandbags, wooden planks, woven sticks, or just mud

• conditions in the trenches led to trench foot (feet being in water too long), disease, death, and injuries

• “no mans’s land”/”over-the-top”- the area above the trenches where soldiers could easily be shot down

Western Front:

• where many of these trenches were built/where the first World War was decided

  • where the most powerful military forces met (German & French)

Stalemate and war of attrition

Stalemate (a position where no action can be taken/no progress can be made):

• caused by the development of trench warfare

• would only be solved by an attacker getting enough artillery and manpower to take down the morale of the enemy and defeat them

War of Attrition:

• a conflict in which each side tries to wear the other down by killing as many of its men as possible

What happens to Italy and Russia during the war?

Italy:

• backed out of the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) and joined the Allied Powers (Great Britain, France, Russia)

Russia:

• Russia withdrew from WW1 due to the beginning of the Russian Revolution in 1917

  • the Russian monarchy was abolished and there was a Bolshevik coup that engaged Russia’s withdrawal

  • Treaty of Brest-Litovsk: a peace treaty between Russia and the Central Powers that ended Russia’s participation in WW1

Why did the US join the conflict? (WW1)

• April 1917: Germany launched submarine attacks on American passenger and merchant ships

  • ship and civilian casualties were rising

  • US Pres. Woodrow Wilson declared war on Germany

  • US joined the war in 1917

Treaty of Versailles and peace settlements of the war

• a treaty signed in Paris outlining peace terms between Germany and the Allies (signed by the Big Four: leaders of the US, Great Britain, France, and Italy)

• held Germany responsible for starting the war and resulted in loss of territory/military power for Germany

  • Germany had to pay massive reparations for damages

  • the Rhineland: Germany lost the Rhineland after WW1 (it was an important area of Germany used for coal, steel, and iron production)

• 1918: Woodrow Wilson outlined 14 points that emphasized self-determination for Europe

  • proposed the League of Nations (settle large disputes between nations/keep peace)

Weapons used for the first time in WWI

• machine guns

• grenades

• submarines

• poison gas- was able to kill many at once and wear down large groups of people

  • gas masks- old versions were not very effective but provided some protection against gas

• warplanes and tanks

  • planes- gave the ability to observe the enemy and eventually bomb them

  • tanks: think of them like mobile machine guns- took out very large groups of people

Karl Marx/Communism

Karl Marx:

• “the father of Communism”

• his book The Communist Manifesto:

  • emphasized the importance of class struggle and how dangerously unstable capitalism was

  • outlined basic requirements for a communist society

Communism:

• adopted by Russia during the Russian Revolution

• Bolshevik leaders who overthrew the provisional government for Lenin appointed themselves to office and began practicing Marx’s ideologies

• economy was controlled by the state which allowed for rapid industrialization

Czar Nicholas

• ruled between 1894-1917

• said to be weak, indecisive, and shy

• started the Ruso-Japanese war in an attempt to present Russia as powerful

  • the Russians failed the war

• under him, the industry improved

• 1905 Bloody Sunday

  • started out as a peaceful protest led by Father Gapon, but became violent and many people died

• October Manifesto

  • document made by Nicholas that promised civil rights & freedoms, elections/democratic gov., and the formation of the Duma (Russian parliament)

• was married to Alexandra (grand-daughter of Queen Victoria) who was of German descent

• he and his whole family were murdered by Bolshevik revolutionaries and their body parts were cut up and buried around Russia

Rasputin and his influence on the Russian Royal family

Grigori Rasputin:

• known as the “Mad Monk”

  • suggested that he possessed a special connection to god or had magical powers

• he was a Siberian-born peasant who won over the Czar and Czarina

  • their son was a hemophiliac (bleeding disorder) and it was thought that Rasputin “cured” him by telling him to stay in bed and rest

    • the royals saw this and made him their close friend and spiritual healer

Reasons for the Russian Revolution

The Monarchy:

• peasant and worker dissatisfaction

  • peasants believed land belonged to those who farmed it, but Alexander III un-did many social reforms his father put in

    • he imposed strict censorship & secret police

• Czar Nicholas II:

  • Russia suffered losses of soldiers, ships, money, & international prestige in war during the Ruso-Japanese War

    • weakened Russia and angered citizens

Why did Russia leave WWI?

• Russia ended its participation in the war to focus on the Russian Revolution beginning at home

• the Bolsheviks took power, therefore the decision was in their interest (they wanted to focus on building communism)

  • the Russians were also losing resources

Why was Russia not ideal for a communist revolution?

the battle for freedom and rights started off as peaceful, but quickly turned violent and resulted in things like gulags

• the country was very large, which resulted in many sides being taken

  • pure equality couldn’t be achieved if so many sides were being taken; it was difficult for everyone to get what they wanted and be happy with the government

• Russia tried to make communism work with so many different leaders, but it never really worked and resulted in violence

Lenin/ Bolsheviks/ USSR

Lenin:

• Marxist revolutionary

• Leader of the Russian Labor Group

• he wanted to claim power and did so with the help of the Bolsheviks and Germany

  • Germany arranged for Lenin’s transit to Russia where they hoped he would vouch for an antiwar sentiment

    • they supplied him with money to build his party and a press

• was brought to power by a coup by the Bolsheviks, they toppled the provisional gov.

• chief goal: create a classless society with production in the hands of the people

• allowed some private businesses and land ownership

• standard of living rose

Bolsheviks:

• a revolutionary group dedicated to the ideas of Karl Marx and communism

• believed that the working classes would overthrow the ruling classes

Trotsky v. Stalin

Trotsky:

• close to Lenin

• highest member of Bolshevik party

  • Stalin made it very unsafe for Trotsky so he wouldn’t take over after Lenin’s death

  • he fled to Mexico and was assassinated by an icepick to the head

Stalin would be able to take over since Trotsky was dead

• Lenin urged for Stalin not to succeed him

• Stalin took power after his death

Cult of Personality

an effort to make an idealized/heroic image of a leader (ex: replacing Jesus with pictures of Stalin, portraying him as a savior)

Gulags

• used during the rule of Stalin

• system of labor camps in the USSR

• people were sent to gulags during the Great Purge

• incarcerated millions of people- many of whom died

Five-Year Plans

implemented by Stalin; the heavy development of industry/agriculture at the cost of consumer goods

• build more factories

• increase/improve tech

• improve/expand transportation

Great Purges

• brutal political campaign by Stalin

• period of time when there was a surge of arrests and executions of Soviet Union founders and Communist Party members (as well as anyone who opposed Stalin); some were also sent to work camps/Gulags

Totalitarian state

definition: a form of government in which all resources are taken over by the state

• total control over public and private life

• the use of propaganda, terror, and technology to get people complacent

• individual exists to serve the state

• little to no freedom

Collectivization of agriculture

making something apply to a group rather than individuals (ex: peasants working on collective farms instead of their own, grain was turned over to the gov.)

• many peasants had to share & work on one farm

• forced to give up their individual forms

• the farms are owned and run by the government

Describe the Western European economies during the period between the world wars

Great Depression spread around the World

• German and Italian dictators appealed to desperate citizens by promising the restoration of prosperity

• German economic failures were blamed on Jews

• businesses in the USSR were seized, private property was taken

What was the situation in Italy that allowed Benito Mussolini to rise to power?

the March on Rome allowed Mussolini’s rise to power

1922 fascists marched to Rome and demanded the gov. to change

• large crowds of people formed/it looked like a “sea” of people

• out of fear of a Civil War, King Victor Emmanuel III asked Mussolini to form a gov. as Prime Minister

• marked the beginning of fascist rule

• he led a group of fascist leaders to Rome (March on Rome) and forced the king to abdicate the throne

• he was appointed Prime Minister, dismantled the Italian democracy, and named himself the Duce

What were the characteristics of fascism?

• nationalistic goals- promoting the interests of the nation, maintaining a strong reputation

• business leaders, landowners, middle class all exist (the middle class is not necessarily starving, but they are not rich either)

• private property is supported under fascism; fascism includes pro and anti-capitalist elements

• extreme nationalism (saluting, pictures of the leader everywhere/god-like status) and racism

How did communism and fascism differ?

Fascism:

• nationalistic goals- promoting the interests of the nation, maintaining a strong reputation

• business leaders, landowners, middle class all exist (the middle class is not necessarily starving, but they are not rich either)

• private property is supported under fascism; fascism includes pro and anti-capitalist elements

• extreme nationalism (saluting, pictures of the leader everywhere/god-like status)

  Communism:

• international change, better the reputation of the nation

• focus on agriculture/urban workers to industrialize

• the state controls all property and means of production

• very limited freedom

• a classless system, nobody is richer or poorer (for the most part)

Reasons for the collapse of the Weimar Republic

• social/economic disturbances post WWI caused the dismantling of the Weimar Republic

  • founders of the Weimar Republic (Jews, liberals, etc…) were blamed for undermining the war effort

  • the democracy came to an end and fascism/dictatorship began

• the Nazis came into power in 1933 and dismantled the democracy

Mein Kampf

means: “my struggle”

• Hitler’s book that he wrote while he was imprisoned

• outlined his political ideas- taking down Weimar Republic, the rise of the Nazi party, Anti-Semetic views

• his thought that the Aryan race was superior (Aryans= “true” Germans with pure blood)

  • inferior people would be pushed aside (his final solution aka genocide/the holocaust)

How did Adolf Hitler go from a relative unknown in Germany to the nation’s chancellor in 1933?

• Hitler won a series of elections by the Nazi party

• he gained the support of other Germans who were against the Treaty of Versailles with his passionate public speeches

  • his speaking was “mesmerizing”

• President Hindenburg asked Hitler to be chancellor with a vice-chancellor to keep him in line

  • he convinced Hindenburg to suspend civil liberties throughout Germany and detain citizens without cause

  • he started to dismantle Germany’s democracy and expand the army/air force and went into power

What were Hitler’s goals as outlined by the Third Reich?

• the growth of the Aryan/”master race"

  • Aryans = “pure Germans”

  • wanted pure women to have as many children as possible to grow the Aryan population

• “inferior” people would be eliminated (murdered/put into concentration camps, aka the holocaust)

• suspension of basic civil rights

• “coordination”- all other political parties were forbidden, only Nazis allowed