Studied by 12 peopleinformation processing model
compares our brain to a computer
encoded
when our sensory receptors send impulses that are registered by neurons in our brain, similar to getting electronic information into our computer’s CPU (central processing unit) by keyboarding
store
retain the information in our brain for some period, ranging from a moment to a lifetime, similar to saving information to our computer’s hard drive
retrieving
recover upon demand when it is needed, similar to opening a document or application from the hard drive
Donald Broadbent
modeled human memory and thought processes using a flowchart that showed competing information filtered out early, as it is received by the senses and analyzed in the stages of memory
attention
the mechanism by which we restrict information
focused attention
trying to attend to one task over another
divided attention
trying to attend to two complex tasks at once
Anne Treisman’s feature integration theory
you must focus attention on complex incoming auditory or visual information in order to synthesize it into a meaningful pattern
levels of processing theory
Fergus Craik and Robert Lockheart, how long and how well we remember information depends on how deeply we process the information when its encoded
shallow processing
we use structural encoding of superficial sensory information that emphasizes the physical characteristics, such as lines and curves, of the stimulus as it first comes in
semantic encoding
associated with deep processing, emphasizes the meaning of verbal input
deep processing
occurs when we attach meaning to information and create associations between the new memory and existing memories (elaboration)
Atkinson-Shiffrin three-stage model of memory
describes three different memory systems characterized by time frames; sensory memory, short term memory (STM), and long term memory
sensory memory
visual or iconic memory that completely represents a visual stimulus lasts less than a second, just long enough to ensure that we don’t see gaps between frames of a motion picture
auditory/echoic memory
lasts for about 4 seconds, just long enough for us to hear a flow of information
selective attention
focusing of awareness on a specific stimulus in sensory memory, determines which very small fraction of information perceived in sensory memory is encoded into short term memory
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of information about space, time, and frequency that occurs without interfering with our thinking about other things
parallel processing
a natural mode of information processing that involves several information streams simultaneously
effortful processing
encoding that requires our focused attention and conscious effort
short term memory (STM)
can hold a limited amount of information for about 30 seconds unless it is processed further
chunk
can be a word rather than individual letters or a date rather than individual numbers
Alan Baddeley’s working memory model
an active three-part memory system that temporarily holds information and consists of a phonological loop, visuospatial working memory, and the central executive
long term memory (LTM)
the relatively permanent and practically unlimited capacity memory system into which information from short-term memory may pass
explicit/declarative memory
our LTM of facts and experiences we consciously know and can verbalize
semantic memory
facts and general knowledge
episodic memory
personally experienced events
implicit/non-declarative memory
our LTM for skills and procedures to do things affected by previous experience without that experience being consciously recalled
procedural memories
tasks that we perform automatically without thinking, such as tying our shoelaces or swimming
prospective memory
our memory to perform a planned action or remembering to perform the planned action
hierarchies
systems in which concepts are arranged from more general to more specific classes
concepts
can be simple or complex
prototypes
the most typical examples of a product
semantic networks
more irregular and distorted networks than strict hierarchies, with multiple links from one concept to others
Dr. Steve Kosslyn
showed that we seem to scan a visual image of a picture (mental map) in our mind when asked questions
schemas
preexisting mental frameworks that start as basic operations and then get more and more complex as we gain additional information
script
schema for an event
connectionism
theory states that memory is stored throughout the brain in connections between neurons, many of which work together to process a single memory
artificial intelligence (AI)
have designed the neural network or parallel processing model that emphasizes the simultaneous processing of information, which occurs automatically and without our awareness
neural network
computer models are based on neuronlike systems, which are biological rather than artificially contrived computer codes; they can learn, adapt to new environments, and deal with imprecise and incomplete information
long term potentiation (LTP)
involves an increase in the efficiency with which signals are sent across the synapses within neural networks of long term memories
flashbulb memory
a vivid memory of an emotionally arousing event, is associated with an increase of adrenal hormones triggering release of energy for neural processes and activation of the amygdala and the hippocampus involved in emotional memories
thalamus
involves the encoding of sensory memory to short term memory
hippocampus, frontal and temporal lobes, and other regions of the limbic system
involved in explicit long-term memory
anterograde amnesia
the inability to put new information into explicit memory; no new semantic memories are formed
retrograde amnesia
involves memory loss for a section of the past, usually around the time of an accident, such as a blow to the head
cerebellum
involved in implicit memory of skills, and studies involving patients with Parkinson’s disease have indicated involvement of Basal ganglia in implicit memory too
retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
recognition
identification of learned items when presented, multiple choice questions require this
recall
retrieval of previously learned information, fill in the blank and essay questions require this
reconstruction
often the information we try to remember has missing pieces which results in the retrieval of memories that can be distorted by adding, dropping, or changing details to fit a schema
Hermann Ebbinghaus
experimentally investigated the properties of human memory using lists of meaningless syllables, he drew a learning curve and a forgetting curve that declined rapidly before slowingsavi
savings method
the amount of repetitions required to relearn the list compared to the amount of repetitions it took to learn the list originally
overlearning effect
Ebbinghaus also learned that if he continued practicing a list after memorizing it well, the information was more resistant to forgetting
serial position effect
when we try to retrieve a long list of words, we usually recall the last words and the first words the best, forgetting the words in the middle
primacy effect
refers to better recall of the first items, thought to result from greater rehearsal
recency effect
refers to better recall of the last items
retrieval cues
can be other words or phrases in a specific hierarchy or semantic network, context, and mood or emotion
priming
activating specific associations in memory either consciously or unconsciously
distributed practice
spreading out the memorization of information or the learning of skills over several sessions, facilitates remembering
massed practice
cramming the memorization of information or the learning of skills into one session
mnemonic devices
these will help us retrieve concepts, memory “tricks” when encoding information
method of loci
uses association of words on a list with visualization of places on a familiar path
peg word mnemonic
requires us first to memorize a scheme
context dependent memory
our recall is often better when we try to recall information in the same physical setting in which we encoded it, possibly because along with the information, the environment is part of the memory trace
mood congruence
aids with retrieval
state dependent
things we learn in one internal state are more easily recalled when in the same state again
forgetting
may result from failure to encode information, decay of stored memories, or an inability to access memories from LTM
relearning
a measure of retention of memory that assesses the time saved compared to learning the first time when learning information again
tip of the tongue phenomenon
sometimes we know that we know something but cant pull it out of memory
interference
learning some items may prevent the retrieval of others, especially when the items are similar
proactive interference
occurs when something we learned earlier disrupts recall of something we learn later
retroactive interference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
repression
unconscious forgetting
Freud
repression of painful memories occurs as a defense mechanism to protect our self-concepts and minimize anxiety
misinformation effect
occurs when we incorporate misleading information in a memory of an event
misattribution error
forgetting what really happened, or distortion of information at retrieval, can result when we confuse the source of information - putting words into someone’s mouth - or remember something we see in the movies or on the internet as actually having happened
language
a flexible system of spoken, written, or signed symbols that enables us to communicate our thoughts and feelings
phonemes
basic sound units that make up language
morphemes
the smallest meaningful units of speech, such as simple words, prefixes, or suffixes
grammar
a system of rules that determines how sounds and words can be combined and used to communicate meaning
syntax
the set of rules that regulate the order in which words can be combined into grammatically sensible sentences in a language
semantics
the set of rules that enables us to derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences
babbling
the production of phonemes, not limited to the phonemes to which the baby is exposed
holophrase
one word - to convey meaning
telegraphic speech
they begin to put together two-word stages
overgeneralization
children apply grammatical rules without making appropriate exceptions
Noam Chompsky
our brains are prewired for a universal grammar of nouns, verbs, subjects, objects, negations, and questions
language acquisition device
grammar switches are turned on as children are exposed to their language
Benjamin Whorf
our language guides and determines our thinking, different languages cause people to view the world quite differently
linguistic relativity hypothesis
largely been discredited by empiral research
metacognition
thinking about how you think
algorithm
a problem solving strategy that involves a slow, step by step procedure that guarantees a solution to many types of problems
insight
a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem
trial-and-error approach
involves trying possible solutions and discarding those that do not work
inductive reasoning
involves reasoning from specific to general, forming concepts about all members of a category based on some members, which is often correct but may be wrong if the members we have chosen do not fairly represent all members
deductive reasoning
involves reasoning from the general to the specific
fixation
the inability to look at a problem from a fresh perspective, using a prior strategy that may not lead to success
functional fixedness
a failure to use an object in an unusual way
availability heuristic
estimating the probability of certain events in terms of how readily they come to mind
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