AP Psych Unit 5 Cognition

information processing model

compares our brain to a computer

encoded

when our sensory receptors send impulses that are registered by neurons in our brain, similar to getting electronic information into our computer’s CPU (central processing unit) by keyboarding

store

retain the information in our brain for some period, ranging from a moment to a lifetime, similar to saving information to our computer’s hard drive

retrieving

recover upon demand when it is needed, similar to opening a document or application from the hard drive

Donald Broadbent

modeled human memory and thought processes using a flowchart that showed competing information filtered out early, as it is received by the senses and analyzed in the stages of memory

attention

the mechanism by which we restrict information

focused attention

trying to attend to one task over another

divided attention

trying to attend to two complex tasks at once

Anne Treisman’s feature integration theory

you must focus attention on complex incoming auditory or visual information in order to synthesize it into a meaningful pattern

levels of processing theory

Fergus Craik and Robert Lockheart, how long and how well we remember information depends on how deeply we process the information when its encoded

shallow processing

we use structural encoding of superficial sensory information that emphasizes the physical characteristics, such as lines and curves, of the stimulus as it first comes in

semantic encoding

associated with deep processing, emphasizes the meaning of verbal input

deep processing

occurs when we attach meaning to information and create associations between the new memory and existing memories (elaboration)

Atkinson-Shiffrin three-stage model of memory

describes three different memory systems characterized by time frames; sensory memory, short term memory (STM), and long term memory

sensory memory

visual or iconic memory that completely represents a visual stimulus lasts less than a second, just long enough to ensure that we don’t see gaps between frames of a motion picture

auditory/echoic memory

lasts for about 4 seconds, just long enough for us to hear a flow of information

selective attention

focusing of awareness on a specific stimulus in sensory memory, determines which very small fraction of information perceived in sensory memory is encoded into short term memory

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of information about space, time, and frequency that occurs without interfering with our thinking about other things

parallel processing

a natural mode of information processing that involves several information streams simultaneously

effortful processing

encoding that requires our focused attention and conscious effort

short term memory (STM)

can hold a limited amount of information for about 30 seconds unless it is processed further

chunk

can be a word rather than individual letters or a date rather than individual numbers

Alan Baddeley’s working memory model

an active three-part memory system that temporarily holds information and consists of a phonological loop, visuospatial working memory, and the central executive

long term memory (LTM)

the relatively permanent and practically unlimited capacity memory system into which information from short-term memory may pass

explicit/declarative memory

our LTM of facts and experiences we consciously know and can verbalize

semantic memory

facts and general knowledge

episodic memory

personally experienced events

implicit/non-declarative memory

our LTM for skills and procedures to do things affected by previous experience without that experience being consciously recalled

procedural memories

tasks that we perform automatically without thinking, such as tying our shoelaces or swimming

prospective memory

our memory to perform a planned action or remembering to perform the planned action

hierarchies

systems in which concepts are arranged from more general to more specific classes

concepts

can be simple or complex

prototypes

the most typical examples of a product

semantic networks

more irregular and distorted networks than strict hierarchies, with multiple links from one concept to others

Dr. Steve Kosslyn

showed that we seem to scan a visual image of a picture (mental map) in our mind when asked questions

schemas

preexisting mental frameworks that start as basic operations and then get more and more complex as we gain additional information

script

schema for an event

connectionism

theory states that memory is stored throughout the brain in connections between neurons, many of which work together to process a single memory

artificial intelligence (AI)

have designed the neural network or parallel processing model that emphasizes the simultaneous processing of information, which occurs automatically and without our awareness

neural network

computer models are based on neuronlike systems, which are biological rather than artificially contrived computer codes; they can learn, adapt to new environments, and deal with imprecise and incomplete information

long term potentiation (LTP)

involves an increase in the efficiency with which signals are sent across the synapses within neural networks of long term memories

flashbulb memory

a vivid memory of an emotionally arousing event, is associated with an increase of adrenal hormones triggering release of energy for neural processes and activation of the amygdala and the hippocampus involved in emotional memories

thalamus

involves the encoding of sensory memory to short term memory

hippocampus, frontal and temporal lobes, and other regions of the limbic system

involved in explicit long-term memory

anterograde amnesia

the inability to put new information into explicit memory; no new semantic memories are formed

retrograde amnesia

involves memory loss for a section of the past, usually around the time of an accident, such as a blow to the head

cerebellum

involved in implicit memory of skills, and studies involving patients with Parkinson’s disease have indicated involvement of Basal ganglia in implicit memory too

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

recognition

identification of learned items when presented, multiple choice questions require this

recall

retrieval of previously learned information, fill in the blank and essay questions require this

reconstruction

often the information we try to remember has missing pieces which results in the retrieval of memories that can be distorted by adding, dropping, or changing details to fit a schema

Hermann Ebbinghaus

experimentally investigated the properties of human memory using lists of meaningless syllables, he drew a learning curve and a forgetting curve that declined rapidly before slowingsavi

savings method

the amount of repetitions required to relearn the list compared to the amount of repetitions it took to learn the list originally

overlearning effect

Ebbinghaus also learned that if he continued practicing a list after memorizing it well, the information was more resistant to forgetting

serial position effect

when we try to retrieve a long list of words, we usually recall the last words and the first words the best, forgetting the words in the middle

primacy effect

refers to better recall of the first items, thought to result from greater rehearsal

recency effect

refers to better recall of the last items

retrieval cues

can be other words or phrases in a specific hierarchy or semantic network, context, and mood or emotion

priming

activating specific associations in memory either consciously or unconsciously

distributed practice

spreading out the memorization of information or the learning of skills over several sessions, facilitates remembering

massed practice

cramming the memorization of information or the learning of skills into one session

mnemonic devices

these will help us retrieve concepts, memory “tricks” when encoding information

method of loci

uses association of words on a list with visualization of places on a familiar path

peg word mnemonic

requires us first to memorize a scheme

context dependent memory

our recall is often better when we try to recall information in the same physical setting in which we encoded it, possibly because along with the information, the environment is part of the memory trace

mood congruence

aids with retrieval

state dependent

things we learn in one internal state are more easily recalled when in the same state again

forgetting

may result from failure to encode information, decay of stored memories, or an inability to access memories from LTM

relearning

a measure of retention of memory that assesses the time saved compared to learning the first time when learning information again

tip of the tongue phenomenon

sometimes we know that we know something but cant pull it out of memory

interference

learning some items may prevent the retrieval of others, especially when the items are similar

proactive interference

occurs when something we learned earlier disrupts recall of something we learn later

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

repression

unconscious forgetting

Freud

repression of painful memories occurs as a defense mechanism to protect our self-concepts and minimize anxiety

misinformation effect

occurs when we incorporate misleading information in a memory of an event

misattribution error

forgetting what really happened, or distortion of information at retrieval, can result when we confuse the source of information - putting words into someone’s mouth - or remember something we see in the movies or on the internet as actually having happened

language

a flexible system of spoken, written, or signed symbols that enables us to communicate our thoughts and feelings

phonemes

basic sound units that make up language

morphemes

the smallest meaningful units of speech, such as simple words, prefixes, or suffixes

grammar

a system of rules that determines how sounds and words can be combined and used to communicate meaning

syntax

the set of rules that regulate the order in which words can be combined into grammatically sensible sentences in a language

semantics

the set of rules that enables us to derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences

babbling

the production of phonemes, not limited to the phonemes to which the baby is exposed

holophrase

one word - to convey meaning

telegraphic speech

they begin to put together two-word stages

overgeneralization

children apply grammatical rules without making appropriate exceptions

Noam Chompsky

our brains are prewired for a universal grammar of nouns, verbs, subjects, objects, negations, and questions

language acquisition device

grammar switches are turned on as children are exposed to their language

Benjamin Whorf

our language guides and determines our thinking, different languages cause people to view the world quite differently

linguistic relativity hypothesis

largely been discredited by empiral research

metacognition

thinking about how you think

algorithm

a problem solving strategy that involves a slow, step by step procedure that guarantees a solution to many types of problems

insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem

trial-and-error approach

involves trying possible solutions and discarding those that do not work

inductive reasoning

involves reasoning from specific to general, forming concepts about all members of a category based on some members, which is often correct but may be wrong if the members we have chosen do not fairly represent all members

deductive reasoning

involves reasoning from the general to the specific

fixation

the inability to look at a problem from a fresh perspective, using a prior strategy that may not lead to success

functional fixedness

a failure to use an object in an unusual way

availability heuristic

estimating the probability of certain events in terms of how readily they come to mind