important people

carefully ai generated

Martin Luther

German monk who began the Protestant Reformation by posting the 95 Theses; believed in salvation by faith alone.

Niccolò Machiavelli

Political philosopher who wrote "The Prince," arguing that "the ends justify the means"; favored strong, absolute rule by a Prince to maintain power.

Sir Thomas More

Christian Humanist author of "Utopia" (describing an ideal communal republic); executed by Henry VIII for refusing to acknowledge the King as head of the Church.

John Tetzel

Friar known for aggressively selling indulgences to fund St. Peter's Basilica, which provoked Martin Luther's protest.

Petrarch

The "Father of Humanism" who emphasized the study of classical texts and wrote sonnets focused on secular achievements.

Charles V

Holy Roman Emperor who issued the Edict of Worms declaring Luther an outlaw; later abdicated and divided his empire.

Desiderius Erasmus

Christian Humanist who wrote "The Praise of Folly" to criticize Church corruption; believed in a personal "Christianity of the heart." LIMITED MONARCHY

Philip II

Absolute monarch of Spain who ruled during its Golden Age and launched the failed Spanish Armada against England in 1588.

Cardinal Mazarin

Chief Minister to Louis XIV who defeated the noble rebellion known as "The Fronde" and strengthened the central government.

Cardinal Richelieu

Chief Minister to Louis XIII who laid the foundations of French Absolutism by weakening the nobility and Huguenots.

Elizabeth I

Queen of England who solidified the Anglican Church as the state religion and defeated the Spanish Armada.

Oliver Cromwell

Leader of the Roundheads in the English Civil War; ruled as a military dictator ("Lord Protector") and enforced Puritan morality.

Denis Diderot

Enlightenment philosopher who edited the "Encyclopedia" to spread knowledge; and favored political/religious liberty. CONSTITUITIONALISM

Adam Smith

Economist who wrote "The Wealth of Nations," advocating for the "invisible hand"; favored a limited government (laissez-faire) that does not interfere in the economy.

John Locke

Philosopher who believed in natural rights (Life, Liberty, Property); favored a Constitutional/Limited Government based on the consent of the governed.

Thomas Hobbes

Philosopher who wrote "Leviathan," arguing that people are naturally wicked; favored Absolute Monarchy as the only way to maintain law and order.

Voltaire

Philosopher who fought for tolerance and freedom of speech; favored an Enlightened Monarchy (Enlightened Despotism) rather than democracy.

Giordano Bruno

Cosmologist burned at the stake for proposing that the universe is infinite and that stars are distant suns with their own planets.

Johannes Kepler

Scientist who used math to prove the Three Laws of Planetary Motion, showing planets move in elliptical orbits.

Tycho Brahe

Astronomer who collected massive amounts of accurate data on planetary movements without a telescope.

Galileo Galilei

Scientist who used a telescope to discover Jupiter's moons and support the heliocentric theory; punished by the Inquisition.

Nicolaus Copernicus

Astronomer who proposed the Heliocentric Theory (sun-centered universe), starting the Scientific Revolution.

Baron de Montesquieu

Philosopher who proposed checks and balances; favored a Constitutional Government with Separation of Powers (Executive, Legislative, Judicial).

Isaac Newton

Scientist who developed the Law of Universal Gravitation and viewed the universe as a giant, mathematically orderly clock.

René Descartes

Philosopher and mathematician ("I think, therefore I am") who emphasized Rationalism and developed analytical geometry. ABSOLUTE MONARCHY

William Harvey

Scientist who discovered the full circulation of blood in the human body and the function of the heart as a pump.