Euro Key Terms (Units 1-9)

Scientific Revolution

refers to the rapid advances in European scientific, mathematical based on a new
philosophy of empiricism and a faith in progress that defined Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries

Geocentric Universe

In astronomy, this system (also known as Ptolemaic system) is a superseded description of
the universe with the Earth at the center

Heliocentric Universe

having or representing the sun as the center, as in the accepted astronomical model of
the solar system

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)

a Renaissance mathematician and astronomer who formulated a model of the
universe that placed the Sun rather than the Earth at the center of the universe

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

was a German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer A key figure in the
17th century scientific revolution, he is best known for his laws of planetary motion, based on his works
Astronomia nova, Harmonices Mundi, and Epitome of Copernican Astronomy

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

was an Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher who played a
major role in the Scientific Revolution He is also known for his conflict with the Roman Catholic Church who
placed him under house arrest for the last few years of his life which marked the most dramatic disagreement
between the science and church community

Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

English mathematician and physicist; remembered for developing the calculus
and for his law of gravitation and his three laws of motion

Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)

an anatomist, physician, and author of one of the most influential books on
human anatomy, De humani corporis fabrica Vesalius is often referred to as the founder of modern human
anatomy

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

works helped define and popularize the scientific method His form of inductive
reasoning, known as empiricism, was based on experimental research rather than assumptions

William Harvey (1578-1657)

Discovered the circulation of blood and the role of the heart in propelling in
Harvey developed an accurate theory of how the heart and circulatory system operated

Paracelsus (1493-1541)

He was a pioneer in several aspects of the "medical revolution" of the Renaissance,
emphasizing the value of observation in combination with received wisdom He is credited as the "father
of toxicology"

Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

French philosopher and mathematician who lived from 1596-1650 His discourseon Method states that all assumptions had to be proven on the basis of known facts He wrote, "I think;therefore, I am" His method of questioning was built upon a strict, orderly logical reasoning

Alchemy

the medieval forerunner of chemistry, based on the supposed transformation of matter It was
concerned particularly with attempts to convert base metals into gold or to find a universal elixir

Astrology

the study of the movements and relative positions of celestial bodies interpreted as having an
influence on human affairs and the natural world

Galen (130-210)

was a prominent Greek physician, surgeon and philosopher in the Roman Empire

Montesquieu

French social commentator and political thinker who lived during the Age of Enlightenment His
work The Spirit of Laws is significant because his idea regarding separation of powers in government is widely
used today in many constitutions

Cesare Baccaria

An Italian philosophe whose main focus was legal reform; published "On Crimes and
Punishment" in which he attacked torture and capital punishment; also, he believed in speedy trials and fair
punishment

John Locke

Among the most famous philosophers and political theorists of the 17th century He is often
regarded as the founder of a school of thought known as British Empiricism, and he made foundational
contributions to modern theories of limited, liberal government His famous works include Two Treaties of
Government

Jean Jacques Rousseau

Author of The Social Contract, he helped inspire political reforms or revolutions in
Europe, especially in France The Social Contract argued against the idea that monarchs were divinely
empowered to legislate He asserted that only the people, who are sovereign, have that all-powerful right

Mary Wollstonecraft

English writer who advocated for women's equality Her book A Vindication of the Rights
of Woman pressed for educational reforms

Olympe de Gouges

best known for her political writing and support of the French Revolution Considered a
feminist pioneer, was an advocate of women's rights Her most famous work was The Declaration of the Rights
of Woman, (1791)

French Salon

played an integral role in the cultural and intellectual development of France and became a
center of intellectual as well as social exchange

Adam Smith

was an economist and philosopher who wrote what is considered the "bible of capitalism," The
Wealth of Nations, in which he details the first system of political economy

Physiocrats

18th century French thinkers who attacked the mercantilist regulation of the economy, advocated
limited economic role for government, and believed that all economic production depended on sound
agriculture

Deism

a belief in a rational God who had created the universe but then allowed it to function without his
interference according to the mechanisms of nature and a belief in rewards and punishments after death for
human action

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

passed by France's National Constituent Assembly in August 1789,
is a fundamental document of the French Revolution and in the history of human and civil rights

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

a law passed on 12 July 1790 during the French Revolution, that subordinated
the Roman Catholic Church in France to the French government

Jacobin

The radical republican party during French Revolution that displaced the Girondins

Maximillian Robespierre

A lawyer from northern France, who as leader for the Committee of Public Safety laid
out the principles of the Reign of Terror

Committee of Public Safety

created in April 1793 by the National Convention and then restructured in July
1793, formed the de facto executive government in France during the Reign of Terror

Napoleon Bonaparte

The French General who became 1st Consul in 1799 and Emperor in 1804

Civil Code

The French Legal system formulated by Napoleon in 1804 It ensured equal treatment under the law
to all men and guaranteed religious liberty, but it curtailed many rights of women

Concordat of 1801

agreement between Napoleon Bonaparte and Pope Pius VII that reestablished the Roman
Catholic Church in France

Congress of Vienna

Face to face negotiations (1814-1815) between the great powers to settle the boundaries of
European states and determined who would rule each nation after the defeat of Napoleon

Jean-Paul Marat

notorious for his inspiring yet aggressive publications during the French Revolution, was one of
the most influential characters of the late 18th century His radical publications helped induce the violent
manner of the Revolution

Declaration of Pillnitz

Hapsburg Leopold II and Frederick William II of Prussia declared support for Louis XVI
against the French Revolution

Principle of Legitimacy

The guiding principle in the creation of peace and stability in Europe through the
reestablishment of the legitimate monarchs who would preserve traditional Institutions

Concert of Europe

Was a general agreement among the great powers of 19th-century Europe to maintain the
European balance of power, political boundaries, and spheres of influence

Conservatism

An ideology that emerged during the 1790s that centers around obedience to political authority
and the belief that organized religion was crucial to social order Conservatives were also generally opposed to
revolutionary upheavals and demands for civil liberties and representative governments

Klemmens Von Metternich

was a conservative Austrian statesman and diplomat who was at the center of the
European balance of power known as the Concert of Europe for three decades as the Austrian Empire's foreign
minister from 1809 and Chancellor from 1821 until the liberal Revolutions of 1848 forced his resignation

Seven Years War

was a global conflict that involved most of the European great powers and was fought primarily in Europe, the Americas, and Asia-Pacific. It ultimately helped Britain become the leading power in Europe.

Liberalism

An ideology that emerged during the French Revolution, liberalism centered around the protection
of civil liberties and the basic rights of all people, religious toleration for all, the right of peaceful opposition to
the government, and the creation of representative governments

Women's March on Versailles

was one of the earliest and most significant events of the French Revolution It
began among women in the marketplaces of Paris who, on the 5th October 1789, were nearly rioting over the
high price of bread The unrest quickly became intertwined with the activities of revolutionaries seeking liberal
political reforms and a constitutional monarchy for France

Society of Republican Revolutionary Women

a feminist society with the primary purpose of defending the
French Revolution Founded by Pauline Léon and Claire Lancombe

Absolutism

A system of government in which a monarch holds sole and uncontestable power over the state and his or her subjects.

James I

First Stuart to be king of England and Ireland from 1603 to 1625 and king of Scotland from 1567 to 1625; he was the son of Mary Queen of Scots and he succeeded Elizabeth I.

Peter the Great

Romanov ruler of Russia from 1682-1725 who brought Western European ideas to Russia and transformed it into a major world power.

Frederick II

King of Prussia from 1740 until 1786, known for his military victories and patronage of the arts and the Enlightenment.

Joseph II

Holy Roman Emperor from 1765 to 1790 and ruler of the Habsburg lands from 1780 to 1790, known for his commitment to modernizing reforms.

Louis XIV

Ruled from 1643-1715, known as the 'Sun King', he constructed Versailles and established absolutism in France.

Bill of Rights (1689)

Drawn up by Parliament, it listed certain rights of Parliament and limited the king's powers in taxing.

Maria Theresa of Austria

Succeeded to the Habsburg throne in 1740 and was involved in many conflicts, including against Prussia.

Nine Years War (1688-1697)

(War of the League of Augsburg) Result of Louis XIV trying to extend French territory to the Rhine.

Treaty of Utrecht

Ended the War of Spanish Succession in 1713, recognizing France's Philip V as King of Spain.

Fronde

A series of revolts in France from 1648-1653 that challenged the authority of King Louis XIV.

Divine Right of Kings

The doctrine that kings derived their authority from God, not from their subjects.

Protectorate

Period during the Commonwealth when England was governed by a Lord Protector.

Oliver Cromwell

English general and statesman who led the parliamentary army in the English Civil War.

Cardinal Richelieu

Chief minister to Louis XIII of France, he worked to establish absolute rule by weakening the nobles.

Glorious Revolution

The overthrow of King James II of England by a union of English Parliamentarians and William III of Orange-Nassau.

Junkers

A German nobleman or aristocrat, especially a member of the Prussian aristocracy.

Cardinal Mazarin

The adviser to Louis XIV's mother and a young Louis XIV, known for emulating Richelieu.

Jean Baptist Colbert

An economic advisor to Louis XIV who supported mercantilism and tried to make France economically self-sufficient.

Palace of Versailles

Converted from a simple hunting lodge into a symbol of power and prestige in Europe by Louis XIV.

Boyars

Terms used for the Russian nobility.

Dutch Golden Age

A period in the history of the Netherlands from 1588 to the late 17th century marked by trade and scientific developments.

Restoration

In England, took place in 1660 when King Charles II returned from exile.

James II

King of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 1685 to 1688, deposed in the Glorious Revolution.

Dutch Realism

Refers to the style of Baroque art that blossomed in the Netherlands during the late 17th century.

Toleration Act of 1689

A law that granted freedom of worship to most Protestant dissenters, but not Roman Catholics.

Test Act of 1673

Required all those wishing to hold office to swear an oath to the King and the Protestant English Church.

Intendants

Appointed officials who served as the main link between the French Monarchy and its provinces.

Feudal System

Political, military, and social system in the Middle Ages, based on the holding of lands in fief and relations between lord and vassal.

The Great Schism (1414-1418)

The crisis in the late medieval church when there were two competing popes, in France and in Rome. Ended by the Council of Constance.

Renaissance

The humanistic revival of classical art, architecture, literature, and learning that originated in Italy in the 14th century and later spread throughout Europe.

Oligarchy

The merger of the northern Italian feudal nobility and the commercial elite created this small powerful group of individuals who ruled a city and surrounding countryside.

Republic

While many Italian City-States claimed to be this, and some even had a constitution, in reality almost all were actually controlled by a small group of elites.

Humanism

Term generally applied to the predominant social philosophy and intellectual and literary currents of the period from 1400 to 1650. The return to favor of the classics stimulated the philosophy of secularism, the appreciation of worldly pleasures, and above all intensified the assertion of personal independence and individual expression.

Individualism

Stressed personality, uniqueness, genius, and full development of one's capabilities and talents.

Nicolo Machiavelli

Florentine diplomat and historian who lived from 1469-1527. Wrote the famous essay, The Prince, which described his view of realistic government with a strong leader concerned only with political power and success and embracing the ideal of seeking to be feared rather than loved by the masses.

Baldassare Castiglione

Italian diplomat who lived from 1478-1529. Published the most famous Renaissance book, The Book of the Courtier. This became the archetype for the 'Renaissance man,' who was versed in liberal arts and social graces, as contrasted to the more unrefined Middle Ages knight.

Lorenzo Valla

An Italian humanist, rhetorician, and educator. He is best known for his textual analysis that proved that the Donation of Constantine was a forgery.

Christian Humanism

A Renaissance movement that combined a revived interest in the nature of humanity with the Christian faith. It impacted art, changed the focus of religious scholarship, shaped personal spirituality, and helped encourage the Protestant Reformation.

Utopia (1516)

Work written by Thomas More. Served as a criticism of contemporary society. It depicted an imaginary society based on reason and tolerance that overcame social and political injustice by holding all property and goods in common.

Desiderius Erasmus

Dutch scholar known as 'Prince of Northern Humanists.' Lived from 1465-1536. He criticized the lack of spirituality in the Church in The Praise of Folly, which ridicules the superstition, ignorance, and vice of Christians on pilgrimages, in fasting, and the Church's interpretation of the Bible.

Patrons

Refers to the support that kings, popes and the wealthy have provided to artists such as musicians, painters, and sculptors.

Querelle de Femmes

Meaning 'the woman question,' refers to a literary debate about the nature and status of women. This debate began around 1500 and continued beyond the end of the Renaissance.

Christine de Pizan

A French Renaissance writer who wrote some of the very first feminist pieces of literature and broke with the traditional roles assigned to women in several ways during a time when women had no legal rights and were considered a man's property.

Pragmatic Sanction of the Bourges (1438)

Issued by Charles VII of France is asserted the superiority of general council over the papacy, giving the French crown major control over the appointment of bishops, and depriving the pope of French ecclesiastical revenues.

Court of the Star Chamber

Established by Henry VII of England and applied principles that ran counter to English common-law and reduced aristocratic trouble making.

Hermandades

Also known as 'brotherhoods' and used by Isabella and Ferdinand in Spain to curb aristocratic rebellion. These popular groups in the towns were given authority to act as local police forces and as judicial tribunals. They repressed violence with such savage punishments that by 1498 they could be disbanded.

Treaty of Lodi (1454-1455)

A peace agreement signed in 1454 that ended decades of war between the major Italian city-states brought on by Milanese expansionism. The high mark of Renaissance diplomacy, the treaty established a complex balance of power on the Italian peninsula and maintained stability until France invaded in 1494.

Girolamo Savonarola

A Dominican friar in Florence who preached against sin and corruption and gained a large following. He expelled the Medici from Florence but was later excommunicated and executed for criticizing the Pope.

Columbian Exchange

A period of cultural and biological exchanges between the New and Old Worlds. Exchanges of plants, animals, diseases and technology transformed European and Native American ways of life.

Astrolabe

An instrument used to make astronomical measurements, typically of the altitudes of celestial bodies, and in navigation for calculating latitude.

Stern-post rudder

This along with triangular lateen sails made ships like the caravel more maneuverable and able to hold more cargo.

Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460)

Was a Portuguese royal prince, soldier, and patron of explorers.

Vasco da Gama (c.1460-1524)

Portuguese explorer whose fleet rounded the Cape of Good Hope to Calicut in India in 1497.

Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)

Set the Line of Demarcation which was a boundary established in 1493 to define Spanish and Portuguese possessions in the Americas.

Hernando Cortes (1485-1547)

Spanish conquistador who initiated the conquest of the Aztec Empire on behalf of Charles V, king of Castile and Holy Roman Emperor, in the early 16th century.