Praxis - Elementary Education: Multiple Subjects (5001) Praxis 5001 (Reading) (186 Questions and answers with diagrams ) 2025-2026

Reading and Language Arts

Test (5002)

Shakespeare wrote four types of plays: histories, comedies, tragedies, and tragicomedies. Some scholars contend that Shakespeare's choice of three of these types of dramatic forms reflects his various psychological states. As a young man making a name for himself in London, he wrote comedies. Then, saddened by the death of his son, he turned to tragedies. Finally, seasoned by life's joys and sorrows, he produced tragicomedies. But a look at the theater scene of his day reveals that Shakespeare was not so much writing out of his heart as into his pocketbook. When comedies were the vogue, he wrote comedies; when tragedies were the rage, he wrote tragedies; and when tragicomedies dominated the stage, he produced tragicomedies.

The primary purpose of the passage is to...

A) examine Shakespeare's life in light of his dramatic works

B) contest a theory that attempts to explain why Shakespeare wrote the kinds of plays he did

C) explain the terms "comedy," "tragedy," and "tragicomedy" as they are used in discussions of Shakespeare's plays

D) compare Shakespeare's plays with the works of other dramatists of his day

E) discuss what is known about Shakespeare's psychological states

B) contest a theory that attempts to explain why Shakespeare wrote the kinds of plays he did

This is the best choice. The first two sentences classify Shakespeare's plays into four categories and offer a theory, endorsed by "some scholars," concerning why Shakespeare chose to write three of these four kinds of plays. The next three sentences provide support for this theory by showing similarities between Shakespeare's likely psychological states and the plays he wrote at various times in his life. The word "But" in the next sentence indicates a change of direction in the passage: the author now suggests that the first theory may be wrong, and goes on to provide an alternate theory: that Shakespeare may well have written the kinds of plays he wrote not because they reflected a particular psychological state but because he thought they would be financially successful.

Predominantly Black land-grant colleges in the United States have a long tradition of supporting cooperative education programs. These programs combine academic courses with work experience that carries academic credit. This tradition has made these colleges the leaders in the recent movement in American education toward career-oriented curriculums.

According to the passage, predominantly Black land-grant colleges in the United States are leaders in career-oriented education because they...

A) have had cooperative education programs as part of their curriculums for many years

B) were among the first colleges in the United States to shift away from career-oriented curriculums

C) offer their students academic credit for their work experience prior to entering college

D) have a long tradition of cooperation with local business and community leaders

E) provide opportunities for students to work on campus to earn money for tuition

B) have had cooperative education programs as part of their curriculums for many years

This choice best states the reason that the colleges are leaders in career-related education. The first sentence tells us that Black land-grant colleges have supported cooperative education programs "for a long time." The second sentence describes cooperative education programs. The final sentence tells us that it is this tradition of support for cooperative education programs that has made these colleges leaders in the career-oriented education movement.

The women's movement emerged in the United States in the 1830s, a period of intense reform and evangelism. Women were encouraged to speak out at religious revival meetings, and many women thus gained public speaking experience. When women sought and were denied leadership and the right to speak out in the abolitionist and temperance societies to which they belonged, they organized their own reform groups, and later worked to improve their own status.

According to the passage, women formed their own reform societies because women...

A) were denied membership in other reform societies

B) disagreed with the aims of the societies to which they belonged

C) were not permitted to act as leaders of the organizations of which they were members

D) were preoccupied with issues that pertained only to the status of women

E) wished to challenge the existing political order by questioning the political motives of their opponents

C) were not permitted to act as leaders of the organizations of which they were members

This is the best choice. The last sentence states that women formed their own reform societies because they were "denied leadership and the right to speak out" in the societies to which they already belonged.

In Understanding Media, Marshal McLuhan sheds a brilliant light, punctuated by occasional shadows of obscurity, on the essential nature of electronic media; the chapter on radio looks harder at that medium than anything since Arnheim's Radio.

The phrase "shadows of obscurity" most probably refers to McLuhan's...

A) use of imagery

B) lack of clarity

C) depth of understanding

D) wide-ranging interests

E) waning reputation

B) lack of clarity

This is the best choice. The "brilliant light" shed by McLuhan is a figure of speech that can be interpreted as an eye-opening discussion of electronic media. The passage states that this brilliant light is "punctuated (interrupted) by" something else that contrasts with it. The "shadows of obscurity" can therefore be interpreted as confusing or unclear parts of McLuhan's discussion.

Histories of the Middle East abound in stereotypes and clichés, particularly with respect to women. The position of women in the Middle East is frequently treated as though Middle Eastern societies formed a single unit that could be accurately represented in a simple description.

The author of the passage suggests which of the following about histories of the Middle East with regard to their treatment of women?

A) A general problem with such histories was first noticed in their descriptions of the role of women.

B) The experience of women in Middle Eastern societies is much more diverse than such histories have assumed.

C) The study of women's roles and experience has recently become a central focus in such histories.

D) Such histories report that the position of women in Middle Eastern societies has undergone a major transformation.

E) Until recently, such histories typically neglected to discuss the position of women.

B) The experience of women in Middle Eastern societies is much more diverse than such histories have assumed.

This is the best choice. The author speaks negatively of these histories, stating that they're based on stereotypes. Specifically, the author criticizes the view that women from all Middle Eastern societies share a single role that can be easily described. This criticism implies the author believes the opposite: on the contrary, women's roles in the Middle East are numerous and complex.

In our increasing awareness of ecological health, many industrial practices have come under close examination, and mining is no exception. Though drilling is required in both cases, base-metal mining involves toxic chemical leachates for separating the metal from the rock, whereas diamond mining does not: diamonds can be separated from surrounding rock using only crushers, screens, and all-natural water. Thus, base-metal mining is environmentally destructive, but diamond mining does not harm the environment.

Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the author's argument concerning the effect of diamond mining on the environment?

A) The process of drilling and getting the drill rig to and from the site destroys ecological habitats.

B) Base metals have utilitarian value, but diamonds are functionally almost worthless.

C) Toxic chemical leachates contaminate not only soil, but groundwater as well.

D) There have been proposals to use abandoned mine shafts as garbage dumps.

E) Logging can be as ecologically destructive as mining.

A) The process of drilling and getting the drill rig to and from the site destroys ecological habitats.

This is the best choice. The author argues that diamond mining doesn't harm the environment because it doesn't use chemical leachates. However, this choice states that diamond mining still harms the environment in other ways.

Historical figures such as Christopher Columbus and Noah Webster observed that changes in land cover caused changes in climate. Columbus believed that the presence of forests on the newly discovered islands of the West Indies caused them to have more rainfall than the deforested Azores and Canary Islands. Computer models of the effects of deforestation of tropical islands, analyzed 500 years after Columbus's initial observation, indicate that forested islands should have about three times as much rainfall as do equivalent deforested islands.

Which of the following best describes the organization of the passage?

A) A historical observation is discussed, and then evidence supporting that observation is presented.

B) A historical theory is described and then revised in light of recent findings.

C) A historical event is discussed, and the long-term effects of that event are analyzed.

D) Observations made by two historical figures are compared, and one set of observations is shown to be more accurate.

E) The assumptions behind a particular historical belief are identified and then discredited.

A) A historical observation is discussed, and then evidence supporting that observation is presented.

This is the best choice. "A historical observation is discussed" summarizes the first two sentences of the passage. The final sentence of the passage provides evidence supporting Columbus's theory. The final sentence of the passage states that evidence produced by computer models supported Columbus's claim 500 years after he made it.

Despite the prevalence of digital books, some researchers have advocated for the continued use of print books over e-readers. Some studies link late-night reading on screens to overall poor health, including lack of sleep and disturbance of circadian rhythms. Other studies have suggested that the human brain may not retain information from a digital screen as well as information read on paper.

But digital books have some major advantages over print books: ease of acquisition and portability. Isn't access to books more important than the medium in which people read? Furthermore, the portability of digital books makes it easier to snatch extra moments of reading throughout the day. The average person wouldn't lug a physical book with them on an errand, but with e-books, it is possible to immerse oneself in Tolstoy while in line at the grocery store.

Which choice best describes the relationship between the two paragraphs in the passage?

A) The first paragraph introduces a topic about which the second paragraph goes into greater detail.

B) The first paragraph offers a point of view that the second paragraph contradicts.

C) The first paragraph describes a study while the second paragraph explains why that study was flawed.

D) The first paragraph puts forward a point of view with which the second paragraph agrees, with some reservations.

E) The first paragraph suggests that a topic requires further study while the second paragraph provides the desired information.

B) The first paragraph offers a point of view that the second paragraph contradicts.

This is the best choice. The first paragraph suggests that people should read print books instead of e-books, while the second paragraph offers arguments in favor of e-books.

Archaeologists have found much evidence that many of the so-called "barbarians" of ancient times were actually part of socially complex cultures, and their primitive nature was often exaggerated by Roman writers. Essentially, they were the indigenous peoples who lived in lands beyond the direct control of Rome. During periods of expansion, barbarians of one decade might become provincial inhabitants of the Roman Empire of the ensuing decade.

The last sentence of the passage serves to...

A) differentiate the Roman perception of "barbarians" during periods of expansion versus periods of stagnation

B) explain why certain Roman writers exaggerated the primitive nature of "barbarians"

C) emphasize that the application of the term "barbarian" was fluid

D) clarify the notion of "indigenous peoples" mentioned in the preceding sentence

E) observe that archaeologists had exaggerated the complexity of the cultures of the "barbarians"

C) emphasize that the application of the term "barbarian" was fluid

This is the best choice. The last sentence expresses that people who had been labeled barbaric "might become provincial inhabitants of the Roman Empire" when the borders changed, admitting new people within the boundaries of Rome.

William Bailey, an American Realist painter, studied at Yale in the 1950s. His still lifes depict smooth, rounded containers that sit in a field of uniform color. Bailey denies a close connection to Giorgio Morandi, an Italian painter of still lifes, but admits that they share "a belief in the power of the mute object." While Morandi painted from direct observation, Bailey painted from memory. This difference in method makes Bailey's objects superior to Morandi's, for they are thus purified, immutable, and mysterious.

Which of the following statements, taken from the passage, is most clearly an expression of opinion rather than fact?

A) William Bailey, an American Realist painter, studied at Yale in the 1950s.

B) His still lifes depict smooth, rounded containers that sit in a field of uniform color.

C) Bailey denies a close connection to Giorgio Morandi, an Italian painter of still lifes, but admits that they share "a belief in the power of the mute object."

D) While Morandi painted from direct observation, Bailey painted from memory.

E) This difference in method makes Bailey's objects superior to Morandi's, for they are thus purified, immutable, and mysterious.

E) This difference in method makes Bailey's objects superior to Morandi's, for they are thus purified, immutable, and mysterious.

This is the best choice. There is no verifiable evidence that Bailey's artwork is objectively "superior to" Morandi's artwork. This is an expression of the author's personal preference, and as such is an opinion.

Parents usually do not insist that their children learn to walk by a certain age. Parents feel confident that the children will learn to walk within a reasonable period of time, when their bodies are ready for such an undertaking. Teachers should adopt the same attitude when teaching children in school how to read. If teachers did this, children might learn to read much more quickly and experience less anxiety while doing so.

The author's attitude toward teachers who try to force children to learn how to read once they reach a certain age can best be described as...

A) sympathetic

B) accepting

C) disapproving

D) neutral

E) enthusiastic

C) disapproving

This is the best choice. The word "should" in the third sentence indicates that the author is suggesting that, when teaching children how to read, teachers adopt the same attitude as that usually adopted by parents: not insisting that something be learned by a certain age. We can infer that the author would disapprove of teachers who try to force children to read at a certain age.

Whatever their disadvantage with respect to distributing education tax dollars evenly among school districts, in one respect at least, local property taxes are superior to state taxes as a means of funding public schools. Because local property taxes provide public schools with a direct source of revenue, these public schools do not have to compete with other government services for tax dollars. School administrators do not have to compete for a share of the state tax dollars, which are already being spent on health, criminal justice, public safety, and transportation. They are not placed in the position of having to argue that school programs must have priority over other public services financed by state taxes.

Which of the following would be most similar to the advantage of funding schools with local property taxes as described in the passage?

A) A small community holds a fundraiser to repair a neglected local road

B) A high school increases its arts budget due to the contribution of a wealthy alumnus

C) A government department receives increased funding due to cuts to other programs

D) An educational research project is subsidized by a government grant

E) Each community center in a wide region receives equal funding from a centralized source

A) A small community holds a fundraiser to repair a neglected local road

This is the best choice. Just as schools funded by local property taxes find "a direct source of revenue" in the local community, this community has taken initiative to raise funds for local road repairs. In this way, the road repairs won't need to compete with other public services for government funding.

Scientists consider both landslides and surface-creep movement essential in the formation of rock glaciers. Evidence of landslides can be distinguished from that of surface-creep movement because landslides leave a deeper and more definite surface of rupture, partly due to their faster rate of movement. Those studying the origins of rock glaciers have noted that some glaciers are well-defined, while others are not; that is, some show evidence of deep ruptures, while others do not.

Given the information in the passage, which of the following may be concluded about rock glaciers?

A) Not all rock glaciers originate in the same way.

B) Landslides initiate the formation of rock glaciers, then surface-creep movement follows.

C) Neither landslides nor surface-creep movement account for the formation of rock glaciers.

D) While the definition and depth of rupture can be measured at rock glacier sites, the rate of movement cannot.

E) Further study is required to determine the origins of rock glaciers.

A) Not all rock glaciers originate in the same way.

This is the best choice. According to the passage, some rock glaciers show deep ruptures, while others don't. Since deep ruptures are a sign of landslide formation, it logically follows that some glaciers originate from landslides, while others don't.

Argumentative essay

This essay task will prompt you to discuss the extent to which you agree or disagree with a commonly held opinion. The topic is designed to be familiar to all test-takers, so responding to it won't require specialized knowledge. You should approach the prompt by drawing on your personal experiences, observations, or past reading to support your position with specific reasons and examples.

Your essay will be evaluated by two graders on a scale of 1 to 6. Those scores will be averaged and incorporated into your overall Writing score.

A 6 essay demonstrates a high degree of competence in response to the assignment but may have a few minor errors. An essay in this category: states or clearly implies the writer's position or thesis; organizes and develops ideas logically, making insightful connections between them; clearly explains key ideas, supporting them with well-chosen reasons, examples, or details; displays effective sentence variety; clearly displays facility in the use of language; is generally free from errors in grammar, usage, and mechanics.

Argumentative essay: tips and strategies

Thesis first: after reading the prompt, start by drafting a clear thesis statement. If you start with your thesis, your essay will be clear and focused, and you'll be less likely to introduce contradictory arguments.

Plan ahead: once you've decided on a thesis, take a minute to choose 3 - 4 examples that directly support your argument. If you start writing before outlining your support, the resulting essay may be confusing or disorganized. Make sure you know your destination before you start the journey!

Be specific: essays with highly specific examples receive much better scores than those with broad or vague examples. Even if you're introducing the exact same support, "some people often..." (vague) won't score as highly as "once, my sister..." (specific).

Proofread: even if you're not quite done writing, use the last minute or two of your allotted time to proofread your essay. While your essay isn't expected to be highly polished, fixing even a few grammar errors can make a sizable impact on your essay score.

"Celebrities have a tremendous influence on the young, and for that reason, they have a responsibility to act as role models." Discuss the extent to which you agree or disagree with this point of view. Support your position with specific reasons and examples from your own experience, observations, or reading.

Which of the following sentences could serve as strong thesis statements for an essay responding to this prompt?

A) Kids should find role models that are worthier than celebrities because celebrities may be famous for reasons that aren't admirable.

B) Because they profit from the admiration of youths, celebrities have a moral responsibility for the reactions their behaviors provoke in fans.

C) Celebrities may have more imitators than most people, but they hold no more responsibility over the example they set than the average person.

D) Notoriety is not always a choice, and some celebrities may not want to be role models.

E) Parents have a moral responsibility to serve as immediate role models for their children.

B) Because they profit from the admiration of youths, celebrities have a moral responsibility for the reactions their behaviors provoke in fans.

This is a strong thesis. This sentence responds directly to the prompt by stating that celebrities are responsible for setting a good example for the young people who admire them.

C) Celebrities may have more imitators than most people, but they hold no more responsibility over the example they set than the average person.

This is a strong thesis. It responds directly to the prompt by stating that celebrities are no more responsible for being good role models than anyone else, despite their increased visibility.

"Celebrities have a tremendous influence on the young, and for that reason, they have a responsibility to act as role models." Discuss the extent to which you agree or disagree with this point of view. Support your position with specific reasons and examples from your own experience, observations, or reading.

Which of the following sentences provide specific examples relevant to this prompt?

A) As basketball star Charles Barkley stated in a famous advertising campaign for Nike, he was paid to dominate on the basketball court, not to raise your kids.

B) Many celebrities do consider themselves responsible for setting a good example and create non-profit organizations through which they can benefit youths.

C) Many celebrities, like Kylie Jenner with her billion-dollar cosmetics company, profit directly from being imitated by fans who purchase sponsored products.

D) My ten-year-old nephew may love Drake's music, but his behaviors are more similar to those of the adults he interacts with on a daily basis, like his parents and teachers.

E) It's very common for young people to wear fashions similar to those of their favorite celebrities.

A) As basketball star Charles Barkley stated in a famous advertising campaign for Nike, he was paid to dominate on the basketball court, not to raise your kids.

This is a specific and relevant example. It discusses a single instance in which a clearly identified individual makes an argument that relates directly to the prompt.

C) Many celebrities, like Kylie Jenner with her billion-dollar cosmetics company, profit directly from being imitated by fans who purchase sponsored products.

This is a specific and relevant example. It discusses a single instance in which a clearly identified celebrity profits directly from serving as a role model, which is relevant to the prompt.

D) My ten-year-old nephew may love Drake's music, but his behaviors are more similar to those of the adults he interacts with on a daily basis, like his parents and teachers.

This is a specific and relevant example. It discusses personal experience with a clearly identified individual, and it relates that experience directly to the prompt by showing that celebrities are less responsible for a young person's behavior than other role models.

Source-based essay

This essay task will prompt you to extract information from two provided sources to identify important concerns related to an issue. While the topic should be somewhat familiar, the sources will be highly specific and academic. You will need to read the sources closely to gain insight into the topic. You should approach the prompt by drawing heavily from both sources and engaging directly with the arguments they contain.

Your essay will be evaluated by two graders on a scale of 1 to 6. Those scores will be averaged and incorporated into your overall Writing score.

A 6 essay demonstrates a high degree of competence in response to the assignment but may have a few minor errors. An essay in this category: insightfully explains why the concerns are important, supporting the explanation with effective links between the two sources and well-chosen reasons, examples, or details; incorporates information from both sources to identify and explain important concerns regarding the issue discussed in the sources; organizes and develops ideas logically; displays effective sentence variety; clearly displays facility in the use of language; is generally free from errors in grammar, usage, and mechanics; cites both sources when paraphrasing or quoting.

Source-based essay: tips and strategies

Read closely: success on the source-based essay relies on how well you engage with the provided sources. Don't be in a rush to start writing! Take a few minutes to read the sources closely so that they are reflected accurately in your essay.

Compare the sources: the sources will provide two separate perspectives on the same issue. On what do the sources agree? On what do they disagree? By thinking and writing about the sources in this way, you will greatly increase your ability to identify the most important aspects of the issue under discussion.

Introduce original analysis: success on the source-based essay is primarily based on how well you use your sources, but don't just include summaries and quotations. Use your own words and ideas to supplement and evaluate the information included in the sources. Doing so will improve your essay and increase your score.

Proofread: even if you're not quite done writing, use the last minute or two of your allotted time to proofread your essay. While your essay isn't expected to be highly polished, fixing even a few grammar errors can make a sizable impact on your essay score.

Within-sentence punctuation

The separation of sentence elements using commas and semicolons; used to format lists, link clauses, and clarify sentence structure

Commas ( , ) should only be used to...

Separate list items, separate descriptive asides from the sentence, link dependent clauses to independent clauses, link independent clauses with help from a coordinating conjunction

Semicolons ( ; ) should only be used to...

Link independent clauses without a conjunction

Within-sentence punctuation: tips and strategies

Don't split subjects and verbs: unless two commas are being used to "fence off" a descriptive aside, no punctuation should come between a subject and verb.

No commas before prepositions: unless a series of prepositions forms a list, commas shouldn't be placed in front of prepositional phrases.

Lists of two don't need commas: a list of only two items doesn't require punctuation; commas are only needed when a list contains three or more items.

Look for comma splices: a comma splice occurs when a comma links two independent clauses without a coordinating conjunction.

Fix the common flaw: flawed punctuation is a very common error type; if it is present, forget anything else that might seem weird to you about the sentence; the choice that fixes the common flaw will be the answer.

Subordination and coordination

The process of linking clauses with punctuation and conjunctions

Clauses

Grammatical units that contain a subject and conjugated verb

Independent clauses

Can stand on their own as complete sentences

Dependent clauses

Can't stand on their own as a complete sentences

Conjunctions

Words that express the relationship between clauses

Coordinating conjunctions

Can link independent clauses, FANBOYS is an acronym that can be useful to help you remember the seven coordinating conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

Subordinating conjunctions

Can turn independent clauses into dependent clauses, there are many subordinating conjunctions, common examples include: although, because, before, despite, while

Subordination

Links two independent clauses by turning one into a dependent clause with the addition of a subordinating conjunction, requires a comma if the dependent clause comes first

Coordination

Links two independent clauses by using a comma and a coordinating conjunction

Redundant conjunctions

If both a subordinating and a coordinating conjunction are used to link the same clauses, an error is created

Subordination and coordination: tips and strategies

Use the logical conjunction: conjunctions express the relationship between the clauses being linked. Make sure all conjunctions logically reflect this relationship.

Transitions aren't conjunctions: look out for transition words that don't actually serve as conjunctions. While "therefore" and "so" might mean the same thing, only "so" can be used as a conjunction.

Fix the common flaw: flawed subordination and coordination is a common error type. If it is present, forget anything else that might seem weird to you about the sentence; the choice that fixes the common flaw will be the answer.

Parallel structure

The idea that when two or more words, phrases, or clauses are linked, they should share the same structure

Parallel structure: tips and strategies

Focus on what you can change: parallel structures often show up in questions that ask you to revise the underlined portion of a sentence. To find the most parallel choice, match what you can change to what you can't.

Look for parallel structure "triggers:" long lists are easy to spot, but there are also a few phrases that require parallel structures: "both _ and _," "between _ and _," (n)either _ (n)or _," and "from _ to _."

Fix the common flaw: parallel structure errors are very common on the Praxis Core Writing. If one is present, forget anything else that might seem weird about the sentence; the choice that fixes the common flaw will be the answer.

Modifiers

Words or phrases that describe a noun

Modifier placement

Refers to the fact that modifiers must appear directly next to the nouns they logically describe

Introductory modifying phrases

Must be immediately followed by the noun they logically describe

Comma-bound descriptive asides

Must be placed next to the noun they logically describe

Relative clauses

Modifiers beginning with "who," "when," "which," "where," or "that;" they must immediately follow the noun they describe

Modifier placement: tips and strategies

Focus on what you can change: modifier placement errors often show up in questions that ask you to revise the underlined portion of a sentence. If you can't move the modifier, then move the noun. If you can't move the noun, then move the modifier.

Fix the common flaw: flawed modifier placement is a very common error type. If it is present, forget anything else that might seem weird to you about the sentence; the choice that fixes the common flaw will be the answer.

Verbs

Describe an action

Verb tense

How a verb is conjugated, tells us when that action occurs (past, present, or future)

Perfect tense verbs

Refer to a completed action

Progressive tense verbs

Refer to an ongoing action

Participles

Verb forms that can't serve as the main verb of a clause without a helping verb

Past participle

A past tense verb that is used as an adjective, for example: "fallen leaves"

Present participle

Ends in "-ing" and is used in progressive verbs, can serve as adjectives (for example: "falling snow") and can also serve as nouns (for example: "swimming is my favorite exercise")

Shifts in verb tense: tips and strategies

Conjugate in context: to determine if an action happens in the past, present, or future, we'll need to rely upon context clues in the sentence. Common clues include dates, times, and other conjugated verbs.

Place general facts in the present: the simple present tense is often used to describe general facts. If a statement is true regardless of timeframe, use the simple present tense.

Fix the common flaw: flawed verb tense is a very common error type. If it is present, forget anything else that might seem weird to you about the sentence; the choice that fixes the common flaw will be the answer.

Pronoun clarity

The idea that a pronoun must clearly refer to a logical antecedent

Antecedent

The noun that a pronoun replaces

Pronoun clarity: tips and strategies

Find the antecedent: to recognize pronoun clarity errors, we must be able to identify the antecedent of the pronouns in question. Ask yourself: what noun is this pronoun logically replacing? If you find multiple possible antecedents, or if you find no possible antecedents, then you've found a pronoun clarity error.

Be specific: pronoun clarity errors often show up in questions that ask you to revise the underlined portion of a sentence. The easiest way to fix an error like this is usually to replace the unclear pronoun with the specific noun it was meant to represent.

Fix the common flaw: flawed pronoun clarity is a very common error type. If it is present, forget anything else that might seem weird to you about the sentence; the choice that fixes the common flaw will be the answer.

Pronoun agreement

The idea that pronouns should be similar to the nouns they represent

Pronoun agreement: tips and strategies

Find the antecedent: to recognize pronoun agreement errors, we must be able to identify the antecedent of the pronoun in question: the noun that the pronoun logically refers to.

Isolate listed pronouns: when personal pronouns appear in a list, it becomes much harder to tell if they should be subject pronouns or object pronouns. If we get rid of the other list items and try the pronoun on its own, then errors in pronoun case will become clear.

Fix the common flaw: flawed pronoun agreement is a very common error type. If it is present, forget anything else that might seem weird to you about the sentence; the choice that fixes the common flaw will be the answer.

Subject-verb agreement

Requires that a subject and verb agree in number

Subject-verb agreement: tips and strategies

Get rid of distracting phrases: the noun closest to the verb is not necessarily the subject! Subject-verb agreement errors can be hard to see when subjects and verbs don't appear directly next to one another. Try to simplify the sentence by eliminating any phrases that come between the subject and verb. This will make subject-verb agreement errors more obvious.

Flip inverted sentences: sometimes, a subject comes after the verb. When this happens, subject-verb agreement errors can be hard to spot. If you notice an inverted sentence, try flipping the sentence so that the subject comes right before the verb.

Compound subjects are plural subjects: it can be easy to miss subject-verb agreement errors when a verb has two singular subjects.

Collective nouns are singular: it's easy to miss subject-verb agreement errors when collective nouns are paired with a plural verb. But remember: collective nouns (family, group, bunch) are singular.

Fix the common flaw: flawed subject-verb agreement is a very common error type. If it is present, forget anything else that might seem weird to you about the sentence; the choice that fixes the common flaw will be the answer.

Noun agreement

The requirement that a noun agree in number with the logic of the sentence

Noun agreement: tips and strategies

Use the same number for descriptions: verbs are often used to describe their subjects. In these instances, the description must agree with the subject in number. Other times, descriptive asides will appear next to nouns. Those descriptions must also agree in number with the nouns they modify.

Look for compound noun phrases: when two singular nouns come together, they create a plural noun phrase that only agrees with plural nouns.

Fix the common flaw: flawed noun agreement is a common error type. If it is present, forget anything else that might seem weird to you about the sentence; the choice that fixes the common flaw will be the answer.

Concision

The concept of eliminating unnecessary words, the purpose of concision is to avoid redundancy, if two words mean the same thing, we shouldn't use both of them

Concision: tips and strategies

Look out for frequency words: one easily-overlooked redundancy concerns the use of adverbs that describe how frequently an action occurs. When you see words like "annual," "monthly," or "often," make sure there aren't any other adverbs that also describe how frequently the action occurs.

Fix the common flaw: concision is a common error type. If a redundancy is present, forget anything else that might seem weird to you about the sentence; the choice that fixes the common flaw will be the answer.

Adjective/adverb confusion

Adjectives and adverbs can't be used interchangeably

Adjectives

Used to describe nouns

Adverbs

Used to describe verbs and adjectives

Adjective/adverb confusion: tips and strategies

Look for "-ly" endings: if you're struggling to identify the difference between a word's adjective and adverb forms, just remember: most adverbs end in "-ly." For instance, "easy" is an adjective, while "easily" is the equivalent adverb.

Fix the common flaw: adjective/adverb confusion is a common error type. If it is present, forget anything else that might seem weird to you about the sentence; the choice that fixes the common flaw will be the answer.

Negation

Occurs when the meaning of a statement is altered by the addition of negative words like not, never, and no

Double negatives

Occur when multiple negative words are used redundantly

Negation: tips and strategies

Look for split negatives: double negatives can be harder to see if they're split up by a verb phrase or a descriptive aside. Any time a negative word is underlined, comb closely through the entire sentence to see if another negative word or a "barely" word is hiding anywhere.

Fix the common flaw: negation is a common error type. If a negation error is present, forget anything else that might seem weird to you about the sentence; the choice that fixes the common flaw will be the answer.

Capitalization

Conventions for when a word should start with a capital (uppercase) letter, capitalize the following words and phrases: proper nouns and proper adjectives

Capitalization: tips and strategies

Capitalize by context: any word can require capitalization if it appears in the right context. Even if a word isn't usually capitalized, it needs to be capitalized if it appears in a proper noun phrase.

Capitalize languages: the names of languages are both proper nouns and proper adjectives. They must be capitalized.

Be careful with directions: take extra care with cardinal directions (north, southern). They are capitalized when they refer to a specific, named region (the American South). They aren't capitalized when they describe relative directions (the southern United States).

Fix the common flaw: flawed capitalization is a common error type. If it is present, forget anything else that might seem weird to you about the sentence; the choice that fixes the common flaw will be the answer.

Apostrophe use

How an apostrophe ( ' ) can be used to show possession

Apostrophe use: tips and strategies

It's vs its: whenever you come across "it's" (with an apostrophe) get rid of the contraction and read it as "it is." When you get rid of contractions, usage errors become more obvious.

Possessive pronouns: unlike possessive nouns, possessive pronouns never require an apostrophe. Possessive pronouns include yours, mine, its, theirs, hers, his, and whose.

Fix the common flaw: flawed apostrophe use is a common error type. If it is present, forget anything else that might seem weird to you about the sentence; the choice that fixes the common flaw will be the answer.

Research skills

The abilities required to successfully interact with scholarly articles, reference texts, and citations

Primary source

An artifact, document, or any other source of information authentic to the time, person, or subject of study. Primary sources serve as the original source of information about a subject. They don't include scholarly commentary and aren't filtered through any other viewpoint.

Secondary source

An artifact or document that relates, discusses, or analyzes information that was originally presented somewhere else. Secondary sources build on primary sources by compiling and filtering authentic information through the viewpoint of a scholar or other third party.

Parts of a reference text

Index: gives page numbers by subject

Glossary: offers definitions for key terms

Abstract: provides a brief overview of a research project

Bibliography/works cited: provide sources from which information was obtained

Preface: introduces a subject and outlines goals for research

Research skills: tips and strategies

Trust yourself: rules tested in research skills questions can be complex, but you don't need to know the rules in-depth to have success. Rely on your past experience doing research and citing sources. The instincts you've already developed will serve you well.

Don't sweat it: research skills questions cover a wide variety of topics, knowledge, and skills. But don't spend much time learning all the details. There are only four research skills questions on each Praxis Core Writing test, so they make up a very small portion of the exam.

Frequently confused words

Pairs of words that either look and sound similar ("than" and "then") or have similar but distinct meanings ("fewer" and "less")

Affect

Is usually a verb, "exhaustion negatively affects one's ability to drive"

Effect

Is usually a noun, "exhaustion has a negative effect on one's ability to drive"

Frequently confused words: tips and strategies

Fix the common flaw: word confusion is a fairly common error type. If you see frequently confused words used incorrectly, forget anything else that might seem weird to you about the sentence; the choice that focuses on this flaw will be the answer.

Conventional expressions

Common phrases that must always be used in the same way or paired with the same words, they don't follow any one rule, but instead require familiarity with the patterns of Standard American English

Prepositions

Words that express a relationship in time or space to the noun they are followed by, common prepositions include: of, for, with, about, from, to, at, in, on, before, between, above, around, and many more. Often, a given word must be paired with a specific preposition or an error is created. Look out for: "(n)either _ (n)or _"

Conventional expressions: tips and strategies

Use your instincts: unfortunately, there is no rule or formula that can be applied to conventional expressions. However, because conventions are based on how words and phrases are commonly used, your instincts will serve you well. Does something feel unusual or awkward? If so, it's possible you've identified an error in convention!

Fix the common flaw: flawed conventional expressions is a very common error type. If it is present, forget anything else that might seem weird to you about the sentence; the choice that fixes the common flaw will be the answer.

Logical comparison

Comparisons must be made between two things of the same type

Comparative form of an adjective

"-er," used to compare two things

Superlative form of an adjective

"-est," used to compare many things

Logical comparison: tips and strategies

Focus on what you can change: illogical comparisons often show up in questions that ask you to revise the underlined portion of a sentence. To find the most parallel choice, match what you can change to what you can't.

Use your instincts: because comparison rules are based on conventional expressions and parallel phrasing, your instincts will serve you well. Does something feel unusual or awkward? If so, it's possible you've identified an error in logical comparison!

Fix the common flaw: illogical comparison is a common error type. If it is present, forget anything else that might seem weird to you about the sentence; the choice that fixes the common flaw will be the answer.

How many phonemes are in the word "ball"?

(A) 1

(B) 2

(C) 3

(D) 4

(C) 3

The correct answer is (C). The word structure is /b/ /a/ /l/ . "ll" is a blend and, therefore, makes only one sound. (A) is incorrect because there is one syllable in the word "ball," not one phoneme. (B) is incorrect because "ba" makes two sounds / / b a/ / , not one. (D) is incorrect because /ll/ makes one sound, not two.

An English-language learner who is capable of matching pictures with words and phrases from a story but cannot yet use those pictures to recreate the sequence of a story is functioning at which of the following language proficiency levels?

(A) Entering

(B) Developing

(C) Expanding

(D) Bridging

(A) Entering

The correct answer is (A). English-language learners at the (A) "entering" stage of language proficiency can process and produce the English needed to successfully engage in the reading activities mentioned but cannot yet identify main ideas or sequence pictures from oral stories. These skills come later, appearing first while the student is in the (B) "developing" level. Once they have reached the (C) "expanding" and (D) "bridging" proficiency levels, English-language learners possess even more advanced skills, such as finding details that support main ideas.

Which TWO of the following syllable types are present in the word "remarkable"?

(A) Open

(B) Closed

(C) Vowel team

(D) R-controlled

(A) Open

(D) R-controlled

The correct answers are (A) and (D). (A) is correct because the syllable "re" is an open syllable. An open syllable ends in a long vowel sound produced by a single vowel. (D) is correct because the syllable "mar" is an r-controlled syllable. The "r" controls the vowel sound, causing the "a" to have a unique sound. Neither (B) nor (C) is present in the word "remarkable"; in (B), a closed syllable ends in a consonant, and in (C), a vowel team consists of two or more vowels together that make a unique sound.

Which of the following is the most appropriate strategy for using easy books to increase fluency in a nonfluent student?

(A) Providing opportunities for the nonfluent student to read self-selected easy books to a younger student

(B) Asking a younger, more fluent reader to read an easy book aloud to the nonfluent student

(C) Assigning an easy-to-read nonfiction book to the nonfluent student for independent reading

(D) Encouraging other students to interrupt and correct when the nonfluent student is reading easy books aloud

(A) Providing opportunities for the nonfluent student to read self-selected easy books to a younger student

The correct answer is (A). Fluency refers to reading smoothly, quickly, and with expression. (A) offers the nonfluent student opportunities to engage in meaningful literary experiences while gaining courage and self-esteem, and while also experiencing ownership. (B) and (D) are incorrect because a nonfluent student might feel intimidated and discouraged by either hearing a younger, more fluent reader or by having his/her classmates interrupt and correct him/her. While assigning an easy-to-read book (C) may help give the student practice, it takes away from the student's autonomy and may detract from the enjoyment.

Which of the following is most commonly used in digital text to give a reader access to additional information about a topic?

(A) A citation

(B) A hyperlink

(C) An index

(D) A glossary

(B) A hyperlink

The correct answer is (B). The reader can follow the link provided to easily seek more information. In (A), a citation, the reader would have to spend time looking up the correct source. (C) is incorrect because the index will only provide the reader information about the text itself and not provide additional information. (D), a glossary, will provide definitions for unknown words but is limited in its function.

Mike loves playing football. He is the quarterback for his team, and he knows when to call the right plays. He hates having to miss a practice, and his teammates are frustrated when he's not there. They always say, "Where is Mike? We are lost without him." The team usually has a good practice even if he is not there, but they miss out on practicing key plays.

Which of the following best explains how the reader knows that the passage is from a thirdperson narrative?

(A) The narrator is only an observer of the action in the passage.

(B) The narrator is participating in the dialogue in the passage.

(C) The narrator discloses only his or her thoughts and feelings in the passage.

(D) The narrator uses the present tense to discuss the conflict in the passage.

(A) The narrator is only an observer of the action in the passage.

The correct answer is (A). The narrator of the passage is an observer, not a participant, in the action and dialogue of the passage. This is characteristic of a thirdperson narrative. (B) and (C) are incorrect because the narrator neither participates in the dialogue nor discloses his/her thoughts and feelings. In (D), while the narrator uses present tense, this is not an indicator of point of view.

Which of the following statements best describes how graphic novels promote inferencing?

(A) Readers rely on characters' dialogue to tell the story.

(B) Readers are given graphic organizers to facilitate understanding.

(C) Readers can summarize the stories' beginning, middle, and end.

(D) Readers use the pictures to interpret the text.

(D) Readers use the pictures to interpret the text.

The correct answer is (D). The images in a graphic novel provide information not included within the text, such as character attributes. In a graphic novel, the combination of text and images is required to produce the complete story. (A) is incorrect because readers do not have to rely only on dialogue to understand the story. (B) is incorrect because the "graphic" in graphic novels refers to images, not to graphic organizers. (C) is incorrect because the ease of summarization is not unique to graphic novels.

Which of the following is true of qualitative measures of text complexity?

(A) They describe statistical measurements of a text.

(B) They rely on computer algorithms to describe text.

(C) They involve attributes that can be measured only by human readers.

(D) They account for the different motivational levels readers bring to texts.

(C) They involve attributes that can be measured only by human readers.

The correct answer is (C). The qualitative attributes are subjective and can only be evaluated by a human reader (i.e., "predictability of text"). (A) and (B) are incorrect because they refer to quantitative attributes of text complexity, while (D) focuses on matching the reader to text and task.

Which TWO of the following can be classified as expository writing?

(A) A short story

(B) A technical speech

(C) A personal diary

(D) A scientific report

(E) An editorial commentary

(B) A technical speech

(D) A scientific report

The correct answers are (B) and (D). A technical speech and a research report both require that information be collected and synthesized. A short story (A) involves narrative writing, while a personal diary (C) and an editorial commentary (E) involve the writer's thoughts and opinions but require no facts or information.

1. The teacher from Nebraska displayed Native American artifacts to her class.

2. The teacher displayed Native American artifacts from Nebraska to her class.

The meaning of sentence 1 differs from that of sentence 2 in that the...

(A) sentences do not have the same simple predicate

(B) adjective phrase "from Nebraska" modifies different nouns

(C) subject of sentence 1 is "teacher," while the subject of sentence 2 is "artifacts"

(D) first sentence ends in a prepositional phrase, while the second sentence does not

(B) adjective phrase "from Nebraska" modifies different nouns

The correct answer is (B). The meaning of the two sentences differs because in sentence 1 the teacher is from Nebraska, while in sentence 2 the Native American artifacts are from Nebraska. Thus, the placement of the adjective phrase "from Nebraska" after two different nouns changes the meaning of the sentences. (A) is incorrect because the simple predicate, "displayed," remains the same in both sentences. (C) is incorrect because the teacher is the subject of both sentences, and in (D), both sentences do end in the same prepositional phrase.

A student whose writing shows an awareness of spacing (though spaces between words are not even), makes sporadic use of proper capitalization, and contains some invented spelling is most likely functioning at which of the following stages of developmental writing?

(A) Emergent

(B) Transitional

(C) Conventional

(D) Proficient

(B) Transitional

The correct answer is (B). Students at the transitional level are beginning to have a more formal sense of print conventions, letters, words, and sentences. The characteristics in the list describe a student performing at the transitional level. Students at the (A) emergent level may use letters or letter-like symbols but are not yet familiar with conventions of print or spelling. At the (C) conventional level, students are able to select types of writing to suit their purpose and have more control of structure, punctuation, and spelling, and (D) proficient writers have developed a personal style and a large vocabulary, and their writing is also cohesive and coherent.