Exam 2

Describe where T lymphocytes become immunocompetent:

Describe where T lymphocytes become immunocompetent:

T lymphocytes become immunocompetent in the thymus.

• Used in the thymus as immunoresponders and fight off infections.

Describe how T cells destroy body cells:

The T cells become cytotoxic (fight diseases) in the thymus and kill abnormal/infected body cells.

Describe the roles of the different types of T lymphocytes:

Cytotoxic- kill abnormal/infected body cells

Helper T cells- (CONTROL CENTER) Increase immune efficiency. Stimulate B and T cell production/action.

Regulatory T cells- Limit T and B cell activity after infection

Memory T cells- (LYMPHOCYTES) maintain a memory of antigens encountered.

Explain the interaction between T cells and antigen representing cells (APC’s):

Display immunogenic material on the surfaces making it easier for the immune responses to get used to natural innate and adaptive development. (SPECIFIC vs. NON-SPECIFIC)

Indicate how this interaction differs between cytotoxic and helper T cells:

Cytotoxic kills the abnormal/infectious body cells (must be activated my APC’s)

Helper T cells are the orchestration of the cell mediated immunity complex. Regulates chemical orders and increase the immune system.

• BOTH BENEFICIAL TO THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

Describe the role of interleukins (or cytokines) in the immune response:

Interleukins focus on B cell growth and stimulate B cell order/differentiation

Cytokines stimulate switching of antibody isotopes in B cells, differentiation of helper T cells and activate phagocytes.

Explain the role of memory cells in cell mediated immunity:

Memory T cells maintain a memory of antigens encountered (Lymphocytes)

• Make sure there is no overproduction

List some immunosuppressive drugs used to avoid organ transplant rejection:

Anti-Inflammatories

• Steroidal

• Nonsteroidal

Cytotoxic Drugs

• Kill rapidly proliferating cells (activated lymphocytes)

Contrast between primary and secondary immunodeficiency and give examples of each disorder:

Primary- lacking immune cells

• absence of B cells

• absence of T cells

• Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID)

  • (IgA)

  Secondary - lose immune response due to some other cause or disease process

  • Age, poor diet, medical treatment, HIV/AIDS

List and describe several autoimmune disorders:

Multiple sclerosis

• CNS myelin sheaths destroyed

Myasthenia gravis

• Blocks/destroys Ach receptors of skeletal muscles

Rheumatoid Arthritis

• Destroys joints

Distinguish among the four classes of immune hypersensitivity and give an example of each:

Type I: Acute or IgE mediated

Type II: Tissue-specific (bad transfusion)

Type III: Immune complex reaction to try to clear antigen and antibody complexes

Type IV: Cell-Mediated or Delayed (Takes long to respond)

Explain the cause of anaphylaxis, how this might treated and why:

Caused by allergen in blood

Causes widespread histamine release

• Widespread vasodilation, loss of fluids, and decrease blood pressure.

Treated with epinephrine (sympathetic ANS)

State and overall functions of the respiratory system:

Major function: Supplies the body with oxygen and dispose of carbon dioxide waste.

Distinguish between the basic processes of respiration (ventilation, external respiration and internal respiration):

Basic Processes:

• Ventilation

• External (Pulmonary) Respiration

  • Exchange of gases blood and air in lungs

• Internal (Tissue) Respiration

  • Exchange of gases blood and body tissue

Define the role of conducting vs respiratory system:

Conducting:

-Gas movement, no exchange

-Nose (pharynx, larynx, trachea and bronchi’s)

Respiratory

-Site where gases are exchanged

-Respiratory bronchioles → alveolar ducts → alveoli

Name the airways as air flows from the nose to the pulmonary alveoli:

Functions:

• Olfactory mucosa with receptors for smell

• Moisten, warm and filter air

  (Antibacterial mucus)

Places:

Paranasal sinuses

Nasal conchae

Nasal septum

Palate (Hard and Soft)

Describe the structural characteristics and the physics of air flow change as you proceed through the bronchial tree:

Conducting Passageways:

-Primary bronchi

• To each lung

-Secondary bronchi

• To segments

-Tertiary bronchi

• To lobules

Each air sac is an area of gas exchange

Contrast bronchial and pulmonary circulations:

Bronchial Circulation:

• Carries oxygen-rich blood to all lung tissues except alveoli

Pulmonary Circulation:

• Carries oxygen-poor blood to alveoli for gas exchange

  (Pulmonary arteries → capillaries → pulmonary veins)

Explain how the surfactants play in avoiding the collapse of alveoli upon each exhalation:

Reduces surface tension at the air–water interface in the alveoli, thereby preventing collapse of these structures at end-expiration. In this manner, surfactant reduces the work associated with breathing.

• Strengthens the lungs expansion during ventilation

Explain how pressure gradients account for the flow of air in and out of the lungs, and how the pressure gradients arise:

Air moves from high to low pressure

• From nose/mouth to terminal bronchioles

Moving air encounters resistance

• Air flow = (Pressure gradient/ Resistance)

  • Bigger pressure gradient = more air flow

Define atmospheric pressure, intrapulmonary pressure, and intrapleural pressure:

Atmospheric Pressure- the force exerted on a surface by the air above it as gravity pulls it to Earth.

Intrapulmonary Pressure- Air in the alveoli

Intrapleural Pressure- Pressure in the pleural cavity

• Always less than intrapulmonary pressure

Define Boyle’s law and explain how it relates to ventilation:

Gas pressure (P) inversely proportional to volume

-Increase Volume leads to decrease Pressure

-Decrease Volume leads to increase pressure

(Atmospheric pressure stays constant)

Name the muscles of respiration and describe their roles in breathing:

Lung Expansion:

Diaphragm and external intercostals contract

• (Increase in pleural fluid expands lungs)

  • Lung compliance - ability to expand

  Lung Compression:

• Diaphragm and external intercostals relax

  • (Cohesion of alveolar fluid promotes compression of lungs)

  • Elasticity - recoil of lungs

Identify the factors that increase/decrease resistance to airflow:

Increase:

Bronchoconstriction

• Parasympathetic innervation

• Acetylcholine administration

• Mucus accumulation

• Inflammation

• Tumor

Decrease:

Broncholdilation

• Sympathetic innervation

• Epinephrine administration

• Asthma drugs

Explain how broncholdilation/bronchoconstriction relate to airflow resistance:

Contraction of the smooth muscle causes bronchoconstriction, decreasing the airway radius.

Relaxation of the smooth muscle allows bronchodilation.

Discuss the effect of blood gases and pH on the respiratory rhythm:

Increasing in ROB:

• Increase in carbon dioxide levels

• decrease in pH levels

• Muscle/joint mobilization

Decreasing in ROB:

• Decrease in carbon dioxide levels

• Increase in pH levels

• Lack of movement

Explain Dalton’s Law and the meaning of partial pressure:

Partial pressure: Pressure exerted by a gas in a mixture is directly proportional to the percentage of that gas.

Increase in altitude = decrease in pressure

Explain Henry’s Law and how this law dictates the movement of gases:

Movement of gas: Individual gases will diffuse into liquid in proportion to their partial pressures.

Describe the factors that govern gas exchange in the lungs and systemic capillaries:

Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide (metabolism functions)

Exchange locations: air, blood, tissues

• Internal and External

Regulated by: Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures and Henry’s Law

Describe the blood components responsible for transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide:

Red blood cells and plasma and hemoglobin

Discuss the effect of blood gases and pH on hemoglobin and its affinity for oxygen:

Oxygen detaches from hemoglobin better at:

• higher temperatures

• lower pHs

• higher carbon dioxide levels

Oxygen binds to hemoglobin better at:

• lower temperatures

• higher pHs

• lower carbon dioxide levels

Explain how this behavior of hemoglobin allows oxygen to move appropriately during external/internal respiration:

RBC’s are rich in oxygen and hemoglobin making it so that when there is more hemoglobin there will be more oxygen for external/internal respiration.

Describe several pulmonary disease and their consequences:

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease:

• Trouble breathing, pulmonary infection or respiratory failure

Chronic bronchitis

• Infection or irritation

Emphysema

• The lung walls collapse and there is no surface area for alveoli to be controlled.