AP PSYCH CRAM REVIEW

Hypothesis

tentative explanation - must be FALSIFIABLE - able to be supported or rejected

Operational Definition

clear, precise, quantifiable definition of your variables - allows replication and collection of reliable data

Qualitative data

descriptive data (eye color)

Quantitative data

numerical data - IDEAL and necessary for statistics

Population

everyone the research could apply to

Sample

the people (or person) specifically chosen for your study

Correlation

identify relationship between two variables

Directionality problem

which direction does the correlation go? (depression cause low self-esteem, low self-esteem causes depression, or a 3rd variable?)

3rd variable problem

diff. variable is responsible for relationship (ice cream and murder)

Positive Correlation

variables increase & decrease together

Negative Correlation

as one variable increases the other decreases

Independent Variable

purposefully altered by researcher to look for effect

Experimental Group

received the treatment (part of the IV); can have multiple exp. groups

Control Group

placebo, baseline (part of the IV); can only have 1

Dependent Variable

measured variable (is DEPENDENT on the independent variable)

Placebo Effect

any observed effect on a behv. That is "caused" by the placebo (shows effectiveness of exp. Treatment). Usually fixed w/ blinded studies

Double-Blind

Exp. where neither the participant or the experimenter are aware of which condition people are assigned to (drug studies)

Single-Blind

only participant blind - used if experimenter can't be blind (gender, age, etc)

Confound

error/ flaw in study that is accidentally introduced (can be called a confounding variable)

Random Assignment

assigns participants to either control or experimental group at random - increase chance of equal representation among groups

Naturalistic Observation

observe ppl in their natural settings

Case Study

Studies ONE person (usually) in great detail

META-ANALYSIS

combines multiple studies to increase sample size and examine effect sizes

Descriptive stats

show shape of the data

Mean

Average (use in normal distribution)

Median

Middle # (use in skewed distribution)

Mode

occurs most often

Bimodal

has two modes - usually indicates good bad scores

Range

distance bw smallest and biggest #

Standard deviation

avg. amount the scores are spread from the mean (bigger # = more spread)

Inferential statistics

establishes significance (meaningfulness)

statistical significance

results not due to chance, exp. manipulation caused the difference in means

p

stat. sig, smaller = better

effect size

data has practical significance - bigger = better

Confidentiality

names kept secret

Informed Consent

must agree to be part of study

Informed assent

minors AND their parents must agree

Debriefing

must be told the true purpose of the study (done after for deception)

Deception

must be warranted

No harm

mental/physical

Surveys

usually turned into correlation.

Self report bias

Errors when collecting survey data due to social desirability and wording effects.

Social desirability

People lie to look good.

Wording effects

How you frame the question can impact your answers.

Random Sample

Method for choosing participants for your study where everyone has a chance to take part, increasing generalizability.

Representative Sample

Sample mimics the general population in terms of ethnicity, gender, and age.

Convenience Sample

Select participants based on availability, leading to less representativeness and generalizability.

Sampling bias

Sample isn't representative due to convenience sampling.

Cultural norms

Behaviors of a particular group can influence research results.

Experimenter bias

Experimenter expectations influence the outcome.

Participant bias

Participant expectations influence the outcome.

Cognitive bias

Bias in thinking or judgment.

Confirmation bias

Finding information that supports our preexisting beliefs.

Hindsight bias

The feeling of 'I knew it all along' after an event.

Overconfidence

Overestimating our knowledge or abilities.

Hawthorne effect

People change behavior when watched.

Biological Basis Pillar

Focus on the biological influences on behavior.

Heredity

How genes influence your behavior.

Environment

How outside situations influence your behavior.

Nature vs. Nurture

The answer is both heredity and environment.

Twin/Adoption Studies

Studies showing genetics and environment influence behavior.

Central NS

Consists of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral NS

Rest of the nervous system that relays to the Central NS.

Somatic NS

Controls voluntary movement with sensory and motor neurons.

Autonomic NS

Controls involuntary organs like the heart and lungs.

Sympathetic NS

Part of the autonomic NS that activates the fight or flight response.

Parasympathetic NS

Part of the autonomic NS that promotes rest and digest functions.

Neuron

Basic cell of the nervous system.

Dendrites

Receive incoming neurotransmitters.

Axon

Pathway down which the action potential travels.

Myelin Sheath

Speeds up action potential down the axon and protects it.

Synapse

Gap between neurons.

Sensory neurons

Receive sense signals from the environment and send signals to the brain.

Motor neurons

Send signals from the brain to move.

Interneurons

Cells in the spinal cord and brain responsible for reflex arcs.

Reflex arc

A neural pathway that bypasses the brain for immediate reactions.

GLIA

Support cells that provide nutrients and clean up around neurons.

Action Potential

Electrical charge that travels down the axon when neurons fire.

Resting potential

Neuron maintains a -70mv charge when inactive.

Depolarization

Charge of neuron briefly switches from negative to positive, triggering the action potential.

Threshold of depolarization

Stimulus strength must reach this point to start the action potential.

All or nothing principle

Stimulus must trigger the action potential past its threshold without increasing intensity.

Refractory period

Time during which a neuron must rest and reset before sending another action potential.

Neurotransmitters (NT)

Chemicals released in the synaptic gap, classified as excitatory or inhibitory.

GABA

Major inhibitory neurotransmitter.

Glutamate

Major excitatory neurotransmitter.

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter associated with reward and fine movement.

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter associated with mood, emotion, and sleep.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Neurotransmitter associated with memory and movement.

Norepinephrine

Neurotransmitter associated with the sympathetic nervous system.

Endorphins

decrease pain

Substance P

pain regulation (abnormality increases pain and inflammation)

HORMONES

if not in the nervous system, it's a hormone

Oxytocin

love, bonding, childbirth, lactation

Adrenaline

fight/flight

Leptin

makes you full (stops hunger)