3. Fallacies

ad hominem

ad hominem

a fallacy that attacks the person rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute.

Affirming the Consequent

If A then B, B Therefore, A

I.e. If it is raining, then the streets are wet. The streets are wet. Therefore, it is raining out.

Amphiboly

The fallacy of ambiguous construction. It occurs

whenever the whole meaning of a statement can be taken in more than one way, and is usually the fault of careless grammar.

Example: The professor said Sarah is smart but she is not wise.

Appeal to Ignorance

Fallacy based on the assumption that whatever has not been proven false must be true, or vice versa.

Example: No one has proven that ghosts are a figment of our imaginations. And given that so many people have claimed to see them, they must be out there.

Appeal to Popularity

When the claim argues that something is true just because the vast majority claim it to be true.

Example: This shampoo must be the best because 99% of people approve of it.

Appeal to Force

Trying to get someone to accept a proposition on the basis of a threat

Example: You should agree to this new contract, otherwise you'll have to find another job in this hard time.

begging the question

The writer treats an opinion that is open to question as if it were already proved or disproved. In essence, the writer begs readers to accept his or her ideas from the start.

Composition Fallacy

Argues that the parts are the same as the whole.

Example: I bought the best parts to compose my pc. Therefore, my pc is gonna be so powerful and better than any other branded computers. The problem: The parts claimed to be the best may not work well together, and some mechanical and technical issues may rise.

Division fallacy

Argues the whole is the same as its parts.

Example: The national team won the championship, so the players must be very good.

Problem: The team can win the championship even if all the players are not the best.

Denying the Antecedent

Statement A → statement B. If A is false then as a consequence of the first statement, B is also false.

Example: If this creature is a dog, then it is a mammal.

A: the creature is a dog, B: it is a mammal. Problem: we don't know what happens when the creature is not a dog.

Equivocation

When a term is used multiple times and argument treats both meanings as they are the same but the terms can be used in different meanings.

Guilt by Association

In this fallacy, a person's views are rejected because those views are associated with a group that is unpopular.

Example: "Sure, Canada has socialized medicine, but so did the old Soviet Union.

Two wrongs make a right

In this fallacy, a wrong action is defended on the basis that someone else did the same thing. Example: "But officer, everyone else was speeding too!"

Improper appeal to authority

In this fallacy, the authority that provides support for the conclusion is not an expert in the relevant area.

Example: "The physician I go to is really smart. I think her views on the morality of plastic surgery should be listened to."

inconsistency

An argument in which contrary or contradictory statements are asserted to be true at the same time.

Example: "Hey, let's all go downhill skiing this weekend, I know you hate skiing and my wife doesn't like to go out in the cold, but it will be fun for us all!"

loaded question

A question that is biased because it contains a built-in assumption.

Hasty Generalization

A fallacy in which a faulty conclusion is reached because of inadequate evidence.

Example: "It is disturbing that several of the school shooters were users of violent video games. Obviously, these games can breed violence, and they should be banned."

Sweeping Generalization

When the writer provides no evidence at all to support an assertion. One kind of sweeping generalization is the absolute statement involving words such as all, always, never, and no one that allow no exceptions. Another common sweeping generalization is the stereotype, a conventional and oversimplified characterization of a group of people.

Example: "People who live in cities are unfriendly.", "Women are emotional."

slippery slope fallacy

A statement that attacks an argument by taking it to such an extreme that it appears ludicrous

Example: "If Customs Canada and the Canadian government start demanding that everyone have a passport, sooner or later, people will have to carry identification papers with them everywhere they go, be it Halifax or rural Manitoba. Anytime a person is stopped, they will be expected to show these papers. Do you want to live in a police state like that?

post hoc fallacy

The assumption that because A preceded B, then A must have caused B.

Example: "In the two months since he took office, Mayor Holcomb has allowed crime in the city to increase by 12%." The increase in crime is probably attributable to conditions existing before Holcomb took office

non sequitur fallacy

A writer asserts or implies a connection between ideas when no logical relation exists.

Example: "She uses a wheelchair, so she must be unhappy." Unstated assumption: people who use wheelchairs are unhappy.

False Dilemma

When an argument presents only two choices where there can be multiple other choices.

Example: Either you believe in god or you are an atheist.

Oversimplification

Description of something in a way that does not include all the facts or details (and that causes misunderstanding).

Example: 'People who claim that Covid-19 is just the flu'

Reductive Fallacy

Oversimplifying the relation between cause and effect.

False Analogy

Exaggerating the similarities in an analogy or ignoring key differences

Example:" Cars cause many more deaths than firearms do, so if we are going to ban firearms, we should also ban cars."

red herring fallacy

When the writer introduces an irrelevant issue or piece of evidence to divert attention from the subject of the speech.

Evading the issue fallacy

You avoid the central point of an argument, instead drawing attention to a minor (or side) issue.

Strawman Fallacy

Misrepresenting someone's argument to make it easier to attack. Arguing against a false or distorted version of someone's actual argument.

Example: "Person A: makes claim X

Person B: takes claim X but distorts or exaggerates it into claim Y

Person B" is now easily able to defeat claim Y

Therefore, claim X must be false."

vagueness fallacy

A statement that lacks a precise meaning.

Correlation vs. Causation

Correlation does not equal causation

Example: "As the sales of ice cream rise and fall, so do the number of homicides".