Semester 1 Terms and Definitions

Still a work in progress dww it'll be finished before next week 😣 (created 12/1/25)

Perspectives of psychology

Ways to view behavior

Behaviorism

• Most human behavior is learned through interaction with the environment

  • How we learn observable responses

  • We learn to predict events, obtain what we want, and avoid what we don’t want

• Humans are passive organisms who react to environmental stimuli

  • We learn similarly to animals-through conditioning

  • Consequences to external stimuli (reward/punishment)

• Modeling and imitation (learn by observing)

Cognitive

• Humans actively seek, evaluate, transform, and transmit information

• How do people acquire, store, process, and use information?

• “Reality” for each person is different dependent upon the interpretation of things/people/events in his/her life

Humanism

• Response to psychoanalysis and behaviorism

• Rooted in existential thought

• Viewed people as being built for growth

• Positive orientation toward behavior

• Phenomenology/phenomenological

• Self-concept, self-image

• How we meet our needs for love and acceptance and achieve self-fulfillment

Biological

• Behaviors, thoughts and emotions impacted by biology

  • Explained by physical events in the nervous system or endocrine systems

  • Genetics (predisposition)

  • Brain chemicals (neurotransmitters)

Evolutionary

• Descendent idea of Darwin’s natural selection

  • Adaptive behaviors continue

• Attempts to explain useful mental and psychological traits (memory, perception, language)

• Sees traits as functional (adaptive) outcomes of natural selection

• How has evolutions shaped the mind and behavior?

• Related to sociology

Psychodynamic

• Existence of unconsciousness/subconscious

• Childhood experiences determine adult personality through unconscious conflicts

• Always a reason for all behavior, there are no accidents

Socio-cultural

• How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures

• Humans. strongly influenced by their social, cultural, and ethnic contexts

• Ethnicity, age, discrimination, and socio-economic status play roles

• Gender roles are key aspects of human identity and how we understand the world

Research methods

• Systematic procedures used to conduct research within design

• Collection, analysis techniques, measures

Quantitive

• Numbers, surveys, tests, experiments

• Patterns and relationships in a precise way

Qualitative

• Deeper insight to complex topics

• Experiences/behavior

• Interviews/observations

Correlational

• Examines relationships between 2 or more variables

• No manipulation of variables, measures naturally occurring associations

• Identify patterns/make predictions but doesn’t establish causation

Pearson’s coefficient

• Measure used to quantify a strength and direction of a relationship between 2 variables

• “r” ranges from -1 to +1

• Strong = predictable; weak = less predictable

• 0 = no relationship between the variables

Experimental

• Investigates cause-and-effect relationships between variables

• Researchers manipulate one variable and measure the effect on the other

Independent variable

• Researchers change in experiment

• See if it causes a change in outcome

Dependent variable

• Observed and measured for change

• Outcome affected by independent variable

Generalizability

Extent to which research findings from a sample can be applied to a general and larger population

Confirmation bias

People look for, interpret, and remember information that confirms what they already believe

Hindsight bias

People believe they knew something was going to happen after it already occurred even without predicting it before

Overconfidence bias

People have too much faith in judgements and abilities, thinking they know more than they do

Statistics

• Large amounts of data can be collected in research studies

• It can be organized and described in a meaningful way

• Predictionsc an be made about a population of interest

Mean

• Measure of central tendency that is the average value of a data set

• Add all values then divide the sum by the total number of values

Median

• Middle value of data set when in ascending/descending order

• If there is an even number of values, average the 2 middle values

Mode

• Most frequently occurring value in a data set

• One mode (unimodal) or multiple (multimodal) or none

Standard deviation

• Measure of how spread out or close together the numbers are in a group

• Small = scores are close to the average

• Large = scores are more spread out

Belmont report

• Ethical principles and guidelines for human subjects in all research

• Respect for persons = informed consent

• Do not harm (beneficence)

• Justice (no exploitation)

Informed consent

• Individuals voluntarily agree to participate after being provided with comprehensive information

• Before study

• Right to withdraw

• Procedures, risks, benefits, rights, purpose

Informed assent

• Research with children or individuals with limited decision-making

• Age-appropriate/understandable information

Confidentiality

• Researchers handle sensitive data and personal information with discretion

• Ensures participants’ identities and responses are confidential from unauthorized access or disclosure

Deception

• Misleading participants about the true purpose or nature of study

• Used sparingly and justified by scientific and ethical reasons

Debriefing

• Gives participants comprehensible information about the true nature, purpose, procedure

• Reflect, ask questions, and feedback

Normative social Influence

Conforming to positive expectations of others by a desire to be liked and accepted by a group

Social norms

Unwritten rules that dictate acceptable behavior in society

Informational social influence

Accepted information from others as evidence about reality (correct actions. and beliefs are uncertain)

Attribution theory

• How people decide whether someone’s behavior is caused by their personality or situation

• Inference about the cause of behavior

Fundamental attribution error

Tendency to blame people’s actions more on their personality and less on their situation

Prejudice

• Unjustifiable and negative attitude towards a group or its members

• Stereotyped beliefs

• Predisposiiton to disciminatory action

Discimination

Unjustifiable negative behavior towards a group or its members

Learning by association

Process of learning forms connections between events that occur together

Classical conditioning

Associating a stimuli leads to anticipating events

Unconditioned stimulus

Naturally evokes an unconditioned response

Conditioned stimulus

Previously neutral stimulus that through conditioning has the capacity to evoke a conditioned repsonse

Unconditioned response

Automatic reaction to unconditioned stimulus without previous conditioning

Conditioned response

Learned reaction to conditioned stimulus

Operant conditioning

Behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequences

Reinforcement

Consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again in the future

Positive reinforcement

Presenting a desirable stimulus after a behavior to increase the likelihood of a behavior happening again

Negative reinforcement

Removing an aversive stimulus after a behavior to increase the likelihood of the behavior happening again

Punishment

Consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again in the future

Positive punishment

Adding an aversive stimulus after a behavior to decrease the likelihood of the behavior happening again

Negative punishment

Removing a desirable stimulus after a behavior to decrease the likelihood of a behavior happening again

Learning by insight

• Sudden understanding of a problem or situation leading to a solution without prior trial and error

• Feeling of realization

Learning by observation

Observing the consequences of others’ actions without directly experiencing consequences

Developmental psychology

Study of how and why people change over the course of their life (cognitive, social, emotional, and physical domains)

Erikson’s psychosocial stages in order

Trust vs. mistrust (infancy) → autonomy vs. shame and doubt (early childhood) → initiative vs. guilt (preschool) → industry vs. inferiority (school age) → identity vs. role confusion (adolescence) → intimacy vs. isolation (young adult) → generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood) → ego identity vs. despair (maturity)

X chromosome

Chromosome in males and females

Y chromosome

Chromosome only in males

Primary sex

Reproductive organs

Secondary sex

Traits that develop during puberty

Menarche

1st menstrual period

Spermarche

1st production of sperm

Gender

Attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that a culture associates with a person’s biological sex

Gender identity

Internal sense of being male, female, a blend of both, or neither

Gender roles

Societal expectations and norms for behavior, attitudes, and activities typically associated with being male or female

Gender typing

Children learning and adopting behaviors, interests, and roles considered appropriate for their gender according to cultural norms

Ecological systems theory

Development is influenced by multiple layers of an environmental system

Layers of the environmental system

Microsystem → mesosystem → exosystem → macrosystem → chronosystem

Authoritarian parenting

Strict parenting where high expectations and rigid rules are enforced

Permissive parenting

Relaxed parenting where parents show warmth but have few rules and low expectations

Authoritative

Balanced approach where there’s a combination of high expectations with warmth and support

Easy temperament

A generally positive mood, regular habits, and not being upset easily

Difficult temperament

A negative mood, irregular habits, and being upset easily

Slow-to-warm temperament

Decreased activity, somewhat negative, decreased adaptability, and a decreased mood intensity

Secure attachment

• Distress when caregiver leaves

• Avoidant when alone but friendly when caregiver is there

• Happy when caregiver returns

Avoidant attachment

• No signs of distress when caregiver leaves

• Okay with a stranger and plays normally

• Shows little interest when caregiver returns

Anxious attachment

• Signs of intense distress when caregiver is there

• Avoids strangers and shows fear

• Approaches caregiver but resists contact

Disorganized attachment

• Frighted, dazed, and frozen when caregiver leaves

• May or may not seek comfort from strangers

• Goes towards or away when caregiver returns

Emerging adulthood

Transitional life stage from late teens to mid twenties marked by exploration and self-discovery as individuals navigate career plans, relationships, and personal identity

Adolescent egocentrism

Increased self-focus that leads to beliefs that one’s experiences are unique and others are always observing them

Social identity

Sense of who an adolescent is based on their membership in social groups

Identify diffusion

Individuals have not yet explored or committed to life choices regarding beliefs, goals, and values, leading to uncertainty about their sense of self

Identity foreclosure

Individuals commit to goals, beliefs, and values without exploring alternatives, adopting expectations of their parents or society

Identity moratorium

Individuals actively explore different life paths, beliefs, and values but have not yet made a final commitment

Individual achievement

Individuals explored various life paths and have made firm decisions about their beliefs, values, and goals

Order of Piaget’s stages

Sensorimotor (0-2 years) → preoperational (2-7 years) → concrete operational (7-11 years)→ formal operational (12 years and beyond)

Piaget’s theory

• Universal cognitive stages

• Development through sequential stages

• Language develops after cognition matures

• Social interaction has a limited influence on independent learning

• Adults and peers give minimal guidance

Vygotsky’s theory

• Sociocultural learning

• Continuous development through social interactions

• Language is a central tool for thinking and learning

• Social interactions are critical through the zone of proximal development

• Adults and peers are active guidance through scaffolding

Language

A system of communication with symbols, sounds, and grammar to convey thoughts, feelings, and meaning

Critical period

Specific time frame where the brain is more receptive to learning language

Phonemes

Smallest units of sound in language that can change meaning

Morphemes

Smallest units of meaning in language

Cooing stage

Early stage where infants produce repetitive, soft vowel sounds

Babbling stage

Stage where 4 to 6 month old infants produce repetitive consonant-vowel combinations

One-word stage

Stage where children a year old use single words to represent entire sentences or dieas

Two-word stage

Stage where children 2 years old combine 2 words to form simple sentences

Overgeneralization

Children apply grammatical rules too broadly

Heredity

Transmission of genetic information from biological parents to their offspring

Heretability

Helps us figure out how much of our traits come from genetics and how much come from the environment

Genetic predisposition

Inherited lieklihood of developing specific traits or conditions due to geentic factors from biological parents

Frontal lobe

Higher level cognitive functions like decision making, problem solving, and expressing personality