American gov final exam

How is public opinion defined in your text?

The aggregate of individual attitudes or beliefs about certain issues or officials, shaped by personal values, experiences, and influences.

What conditions do survey samples need to satisfy to make the results of a poll reliable?

They must be random, representative of the population, and have a sufficient sample size to avoid biases and ensure accuracy.

What are some issues that come up in designing survey questions?

Question wording (bias or leading questions), question order, unclear or ambiguous phrasing, and response options that may not capture the full range of opinions.

What is political socialization? Who or what are the agents of socialization we discussed?

The process by which individuals develop their political beliefs and values. Agents include family, education, media, peers, and political parties.

What are heuristics?

Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb used to make decisions quickly.

Which heuristic tends to be the most powerful?

Party identification, as it shapes much of an individual's political perception and decision-making.

What are the ways in which citizens can directly influence what government does?

Citizens can vote, participate in protests or rallies, engage in direct action, sign petitions, and contact elected representatives.

what is the difference between a primary election and a general election?

A primary election selects party nominees, while a general election decides between the nominees of different parties for a specific office.

- What is Georgia's runoff system?

Georgia's runoff system requires a second election if no candidate receives a majority of the vote in the initial election, typically used in primary or special elections.

- What are the different kinds of ballot measures we discussed?

Ballot measures include initiatives (proposals placed on the ballot by citizens), referenda (proposals placed on the ballot by legislators), and recalls (attempts to remove elected officials from office).

- What is meant by the term "convenience voting" and what are some examples of this?

Convenience voting refers to practices that make voting easier, such as early voting, absentee voting, and mail-in ballots.

What is the difference between the voting age population (VAP) and voting eligible population (VEP)?

VAP includes all individuals aged 18 and over, while VEP excludes individuals who are ineligible to vote (e.g., non-citizens, felons).

How does voter turnout in the U.S. compare to voter turnout in other western democracies?

Voter turnout in the U.S. is generally lower than in many Western democracies, with factors such as registration requirements and electoral competitiveness contributing to the gap.

What are some individual level factors that are correlated with the likelihood that an individual will vote?

Factors include education level, income, age, race, political interest, and party identification.

Why did Anthony Downs argue that voting, from an economic perspective, seems individually rational? How did people argue against Downs?

Downs argued voting is irrational because the personal cost of voting (time, effort) outweighs the benefits. Critics say voting is a civic duty and that group benefits can outweigh individual costs.

What is civil disobedience? What are some examples of civil disobedience?

Civil disobedience is the deliberate, nonviolent violation of laws to protest against unjust government policies. Examples include the Civil Rights Movement's sit-ins and the 1960s anti-Vietnam War protests.

- How is a political party defined? How are they distinct from interest groups?

A political party is an organized group that seeks to influence government by electing candidates to public office. Unlike interest groups, which focus on specific issues, political parties aim to control government.

What are the key functions that political parties fulfill in a democracy (hint: we identified six of them)?

The six functions of political parties are: recruiting candidates, organizing elections, mobilizing voters, facilitating governance, providing policy alternatives, and acting as a linkage institution between citizens and government.

Why do we have a two-party system when many other democracies have multiparty systems? What is Duverger's Law?

Duverger's Law states that electoral systems with single-member districts and plurality voting tend to result in a two-party system because smaller parties struggle to win seats.

Who were the major leaders of the two parties that emerged in the first party system, the Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans?

The major leaders of the Federalists were Alexander Hamilton, and the Democratic-Republicans were led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison.

- What was Andrew Jackson's vision for his newly-created Democratic Party?

Jackson envisioned a party that represented the "common man," advocating for a stronger executive branch and populist policies.

- What was the impetus behind the creation of the Republican Party in the 1850s?

The Republican Party was formed primarily in opposition to the expansion of slavery into the western territories, drawing support from abolitionists and anti-slavery factions.

What was the "New Deal coalition" and who belonged to it? By extension, who was in the (admittedly smaller) Republican coalition? What caused the New Deal coalition to begin to erode?

The New Deal coalition was a diverse group including African Americans, union workers, farmers, and urban voters, supporting the Democratic Party. The smaller Republican coalition included business elites and conservative white Southerners. The New Deal coalition began to erode due to social and cultural shifts, especially around civil rights.

- What is a realignment? What is a critical election?

A realignment is a significant shift in political party support, often occurring after a critical election. A critical election is one that leads to a long-term change in party dominance and voter coalitions.

What is meant by "party-in-the-electorate?" What about "party organization?" What about "party-in-government?

"Party-in-the-electorate" refers to voters who identify with a political party, "party organization" is the formal structure and leadership of the party, and "party-in-government" is the elected officials from that party.

- What is an interest group? What is lobbying?

An interest group is an organized group that seeks to influence public policy. Lobbying is the act of trying to persuade government officials to make decisions favorable to the group's interests.

What are the principal concerns people have about interest groups and their influence on the political process?

Concerns include that interest groups can disproportionately influence policymakers, especially those with greater financial resources, leading to policy outcomes that favor the few over the many.

- What is the "public interest lobby?"

A public interest lobby advocates for policies that benefit society as a whole, rather than specific groups or industries.

What is the pluralist defense of interest groups, advanced by political scientist David Truman? What is the argument against the pluralist defense, advanced by political scientist E.E. Schattschneider?

Truman argued that interest groups represent diverse societal interests and contribute to democracy. Schattschneider countered that pluralism often leads to elite domination, where only powerful groups have a voice.

- According to Mancur Olson, what interests tend to be underrepresented?

Olson argued that large, diffuse groups with widespread benefits (e.g., the general public) tend to be underrepresented because individuals have little incentive to organize or lobby for these causes.

- What are moral incentives? What are selective incentives?

Moral incentives are the satisfaction individuals get from supporting a cause they believe is right, while selective incentives are tangible rewards that encourage individuals to join or contribute to an interest group.

- What are insider tactics? Outsider tactics?

Insider tactics involve direct lobbying of lawmakers and building relationships with them. Outsider tactics include public campaigns, protests, or media efforts to influence policy or gain attention.

- How are interest groups involved in litigation?

Interest groups may file lawsuits, participate in legal briefs (amicus curiae), or support legal action to influence judicial decisions and promote their goals.

- What is the most valuable thing that lobbyists offer politicians (hint: it is not money)?

The most valuable thing lobbyists offer is expertise and technical information that helps policymakers make informed decisions.

- What is the difference between technical information and political information?

Technical information is factual and specific, often related to a policy issue, while political information focuses on public opinion, political implications, or strategic considerations.

- What is a Political Action Committee (PAC)? What does it take to be classified as one?

A PAC is an organization that collects and distributes campaign contributions to candidates. It must be registered with the Federal Election Commission (FEC) and adhere to contribution limits.

- What is a "Super-PAC?"

A Super-PAC is a type of PAC that can raise and spend unlimited amounts of money to influence elections, but it cannot directly contribute to or coordinate with candidates' campaigns.

- What is "the media?" Why is media considered so important in a democracy?

The media refers to channels of communication, including newspapers, TV, radio, and online platforms. It's important in a democracy because it informs the public, facilitates political debate, and holds government accountable.

- What is social media?

Social media refers to digital platforms where users can create, share, and interact with content, such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and YouTube.

- What is the freedom of the press and why is it important?

The freedom of the press is the right to report news and opinions without government censorship or interference. It is important because it ensures a free flow of information, which is essential for informed citizenship and government accountability.

In earlier eras with more limited technology, the "press" referred exclusively to newspapers. What was the "partisan press?" How and why did newspapers break their dependence on political parties

The partisan press was a system in which newspapers were aligned with political parties, promoting their viewpoints. Newspapers gradually broke away from this model as they sought broader audiences and commercial interests, prioritizing objective journalism.

- What is yellow journalism? What is muckraking?

Yellow journalism refers to sensationalized and exaggerated reporting aimed at attracting attention, often at the cost of accuracy. Muckraking involves investigative journalism focused on exposing corruption and social injustices.

How did Franklin D. Roosevelt revolutionize the use of radio? What were the "Fireside Chats?

FDR used radio to communicate directly with the American public, offering reassurance and updates on government actions. His "Fireside Chats" were informal radio addresses that made him more relatable and helped build trust.

When did television become popular in American households? Which president revolutionized the use of TV?

Television became popular in the 1950s, and President John F. Kennedy revolutionized its use during his election and presidency, particularly with televised debates and press conferences.

- What is citizen journalism?

Citizen journalism is the practice of ordinary individuals reporting news and sharing information, often through blogs or social media, rather than traditional professional news outlets.

There are regulations on the press, even though freedom of the press is quite broad. What is defamation and how can a public figure prove they were defamed? What are the regulations regarding broadcasting classified material? What is prior restraint?

Defamation is the false communication of information that harms someone's reputation. Public figures must prove "actual malice" to win a defamation case. Broadcasting classified material is regulated to prevent national security threats, and prior restraint refers to government actions to prevent publication before it occurs, which is generally unconstitutional under the First Amendment.

- What is a "leak?"

A leak is the unauthorized release of confidential information, typically by a government insider or official, to the media.

- What is net neutrality? What is the equal time rule? What is the fairness doctrine?

Net neutrality is the principle that internet service providers should treat all data equally and not discriminate or charge differently by user, content, or website. The equal time rule mandates that broadcast stations provide equal airtime to all political candidates. The fairness doctrine required broadcasters to present contrasting viewpoints on controversial issues but was abolished in 1987.

- What does "Section 230" refer to?

Section 230 of the Communications Decency Act provides immunity to online platforms (e.g., social media) from liability for user-generated content, protecting them from lawsuits related to posts made by users.

When it comes to how media affects citizens, what is the "minimal effects theory?" What about the "cultivation theory?

Minimal effects theory suggests that media has a limited impact on shaping attitudes or behaviors, as people generally seek information that reinforces their existing views. Cultivation theory argues that prolonged exposure to media, particularly TV, can shape viewers' perceptions of reality, especially in terms of social issues and violence.

- What is meant by the terms "framing" and "priming?"

Framing refers to the way media presents information, shaping the way people interpret it. Priming involves influencing the public's perception of an issue by highlighting certain aspects of it, affecting how people evaluate related issues or candidates.

- In what ways might media be biased?

Media bias can occur in the form of selective reporting, slanting of stories, framing, omission of key facts, or the choice of which stories to cover, leading to a skewed representation of events or issues.

- What does "polarization" mean? What is an ideology?

Polarization refers to the growing ideological distance and division between political parties or groups, particularly in the U.S. An ideology is a set of beliefs or values that guide political behavior and policy preferences.

- What, in very basic terms, if the difference between "the Left" and "the Right?"

The Left typically advocates for social equality, government intervention in the economy, and progressive policies, while the Right emphasizes limited government, free markets, and traditional values.

What are social issues? What are economic issues? What are some ways where Left and Right differ on these issues?

Social issues concern values and cultural concerns (e.g., abortion, same-sex marriage), while economic issues focus on wealth distribution, labor, and government intervention. The Left often favors progressive solutions on social issues, while the Right tends to hold more conservative views. On economic issues, the Left tends to support more government regulation, while the Right favors less.

What are some left-wing critiques of capitalism? What are some right-wing defenses of capitalism?

Left-wing critiques argue that capitalism leads to inequality and exploitation, while right-wing defenses emphasize the efficiency of free markets, individual freedom, and innovation in capitalist systems.

Who tends to favor greater governmental regulation of the economy: liberals or conservatives?

Liberals generally favor greater government regulation of the economy to address market failures, protect workers, and ensure social welfare, while conservatives prefer less regulation and a free-market approach.

- What influence has libertarianism had on Republican economics?

Libertarianism has influenced Republican economics by advocating for limited government intervention, lower taxes, and greater emphasis on individual liberty and free markets.

- What is populism? How is left-wing populism distinct from right-wing populism?

Populism is a political approach that seeks to represent the interests of ordinary people against the elites. Left-wing populism typically focuses on economic inequality and corporate power, while right-wing populism often emphasizes nationalism, cultural issues, and anti-immigrant sentiment.

- What is globalization?

Globalization refers to the increasing interconnectedness of the world's economies, cultures, and populations, often driven by trade, technology, and the movement of people.

What is meant by the term "pernicious polarization?" What are the consequences of pernicious polarization?

Pernicious polarization refers to extreme political divisions that lead to negative social and political consequences, such as gridlock, diminished trust in government, and increased hostility between groups.

- What is social identity theory?

Social identity theory suggests that individuals derive part of their identity from the social groups they belong to, such as political parties, and that this can lead to in-group favoritism and out-group hostility.

- What might remedy pernicious polarization?

Efforts to remedy pernicious polarization might include electoral reforms, improved political discourse, increasing media literacy, promoting cross-party dialogue, and reducing partisan gerrymandering.

- What does it mean to call the United States a liberal democracy?

It means the U.S. upholds principles of individual rights, representative government, rule of law, and protection of freedoms, with a commitment to democratic processes.

According to the Declaration of Independence, what three fundamental rights belong to everyone?

Life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.

What is federalism? How is it different from a confederation, and how is it different from a unitary system?

Federalism is a system of government where power is shared between national and state governments. A confederation gives more power to states, while a unitary system concentrates power at the national level.

What are the necessary and proper and interstate commerce clauses in Article I and why are they so important?

The necessary and proper clause gives Congress the authority to pass laws needed to carry out its enumerated powers. The interstate commerce clause allows Congress to regulate trade between states, which has been used to expand federal authority.

What is the Bill of Rights?

The Bill of Rights is the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, which guarantee individual freedoms and rights, including freedom of speech, religion, and the press.

What is the difference between dual federalism and cooperative (or shared) federalism?

Dual federalism is a model where state and national governments operate in separate spheres, while cooperative federalism involves more intergovernmental collaboration and shared responsibilities.

What is Dillon's Rule (hint: it is about local governments)? Why is the relationship between a state and a city within that state more like a unitary system than a federal system?

Dillon's Rule states that local governments only have powers granted to them by the state government. The relationship is more unitary because local governments are subordinate to state governments, unlike in a federal system where localities may have more autonomy.

- What is the distinction between civil liberties and civil rights?

Civil liberties are individual freedoms protected from government interference (e.g., freedom of speech), while civil rights are protections against discrimination based on characteristics like race, gender, or disability.

- What is judicial review and why is it important?

Judicial review is the power of courts to review and potentially invalidate laws or executive actions that violate the Constitution. It

Initially, the Bill of Rights restricted only what the national government could do; it did not restrict the states. What constitutional amendment changed this?

The 14th Amendment, through the incorporation doctrine, extended the protections of the Bill of Rights to state governments.

- Which amendment formally ended slavery?

The 13th Amendment.

Which Supreme Cout case upheld segregation as constitutional? Which Supreme Court case overturned segregation as unconstitutional?

Plessy v. Ferguson upheld segregation (1896), while Brown v. Board of Education overturned segregation (1954).

- What does the Civil Rights Act of 1964 do? What does the Voting Rights Act of 1965 do?

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in employment and public accommodations. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 aims to eliminate racial discrimination in voting.

What is the women's suffrage movement? Which amendment secured the right to vote for all women in the United States?

The women's suffrage movement fought for women's right to vote, culminating in the 19th Amendment, which granted women the right to vote in 1920.

What are differences between the House and Senate in terms of: how many members each chamber has; how states are apportioned representation in both chambers; term length?

The House has 435 members apportioned by population, with two-year terms. The Senate has 100 members, with two from each state, and six-year terms.

- What is gerrymandering?

Gerrymandering is the manipulation of electoral district boundaries to favor one party or group over another.

What sorts of issues did the Framers debate at the Constitutional Convention with respect to the design of the presidency?

The Framers debated issues such as the method of election (Electoral College), the president's powers, term length, and the relationship between the president and other branches.

- What is the bureaucracy?

The bureaucracy is the complex system of agencies, departments, and commissions that carry out the work of the government.

- What are rules or regulations? How are they distinct from laws?

Rules or regulations are specific guidelines created by administrative agencies to implement laws. Unlike laws, they do not require legislative approval but are derived from the authority granted by laws.

What in the Constitution theoretically promotes the ideal of judicial independence?

The Constitution promotes judicial independence through life tenure for federal judges, ensuring they are not subject to political pressure or re-election.