Studied by 5 people
Biomolecules
All the organic compounds/molecules that can be obtained from a living cell/tissue/organism
The relative abundance of Carbon and Hydrogen is…
higher in living beings than in Earth’s crust
Chemical composition analysis in living tissue
Grind the trichloroacetic acid with the living tissue and strain through a cloth to form 2 compounds: a filtrate(acid-soluble) and a retentate(acid-insoluble)
Micromolecules and what they include
Molecules weighed less than 1000 daltons and present in acid-soluble pools. Include amino acids, N bases, and monosacharides
Macromolecules
Molecules weighing more than 1000 daltons and present in acid-insoluble pools. Include proteins, nucleic acids, polysacharides
“Ash” analysis technique
Drying a living tissue and burning it too be left with inorganic compounds to study the chemical analysis of living tissue
Abundance of elements from greatest to lowest in the human body
O > C > H > N
Abundance of elements from greatest to lowest in the Earth’s crust
O > Si > Ca > Na
Metabolites
intermediate products of metabolism
Primary metabolites
metabolites required for basic or primary metabolic processes
Secondary metabolites
metabolites not involved in primary metabolism and have no direct function in growth and development.
Examples of secondary pigment metabolites
Carotenoids & Anthocyanins
Examples of secondary alkaloid metabolites
Morphine & Codeine
Examples of secondary terpenoid metabolites
Monoterpenoid & Diterpenoid
Examples of secondary essential oil metabolites
lemon grass oil, rosemary oil
Examples of secondary toxin metabolites
Abrin & Ricin
Examples of secondary lectin metabolites
Concanavalin A
Examples of secondary drug metabolites
Vinblastin & Circumin
Examples of secondary polymeric metabolites
Rubber, Gums, cellulose
The four micromolecules are…
Proteins, Nucleic Acids, Carbohydrates, and Lipids
Polymeric substances
Any substances which are in the form of a polymer or are found as a polymer
Water is the…
most abundant chemical in all living organisms
What are carbohydrates?
They are the main source of energy and the cell’s first choice of energy made of monosachhcarides.
Carbohydrate ratio
Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio
Polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones
Chemical compostion of carbohydrates
Monosaccharides
The simplest sugars which cannot be furthur broken down, all occur in both the D & L form except Dihydroxyacetone, and in either a ring or straight chain.
All monosaccharides are…
poly-hydroxy aldehydes or ketones
Chiral Carbon
A carbon atom that is attached to four different types of atoms or group of atoms
Pyranose
6-carbon ring
Furanose
5-carbon ring
Anomers
type of monosaccharides that have the -H and -OH groups changing at the anomeric carbon in only cyclic forms.
Anomeric carbon
aldehyde or ketone carbon which connects the linear form to the cyclic form
Epimers
isomers formed as a result of intechange of the -OH and -H groups on just one carbon atoms. Exist in both linear and cyclic forms.
Aldoses
monosaccharides with free aldehyde groups
Ketones
monosaccharides with free ketone groups
Trioses
3-carbon monosaccharide (C3H603) - Dihydroxyacetone, glyceraldehyde
Tetroses
4-carbon monosaccharides (C4H8O4) - Erythrose and Erythrulose
Pentoses
5-carbon monosaccharides (C5H10O5) - xylose, xylulose, deoxyribose, aribonose, ribose, ribulose
Hexoses
6-carbon monosaccharides (C6H12O6) - glucose, fructose, galactose, mannose
Heptoses
7-carbon monosaccharides (C7H14O7) - seduheptulose
Glucose
Main respiratory substance also known as grape sugar, blood sugar, and dextrose
Fructose
Sweetest carbohydrate and also known as fruit sugar and laevulose
Galactose
most abundant carbohydrate found in brain and nervous tissue so its also called brain sugar
Mannose
Carbohydrate present in hemicellulose
Oligosaccharides
Carbohydrates made of 2-10 monosaccharides linked when an aldehyde or ketone group fo one monosaccharide reacts with an alcoholic group of another monosaccharide to form a glycosidic linkage from 1’ to 4’
Disaccharides
Carbohydrates composed of 2 monosaccharide units that are water soluble and sweet in taste.
Maltose
disaccharide which is in intermediate compound in starch digestion and abundant in germinating starchy seeds (malt sugar)
Lactose
Disaccharide also known as “milk sugar”
Sucrose
Naturally non-reducing disaccharide which is used to transport sugars in plants. A.k.a invert sugar, cane sugar, or commercial sugar
Trehalose
Naturally non-reducing disaccharides present in the haemolymph(insect blood) cof insects
Polysaccharides
carbohydrates composed of a large number of monosaccharides that are insoluble in water and do not taste sweet
Right end of polysacchardes
reducing end
Left end of polysacchardes
non-reducing end
Nutritive polysaccharides
carbohydrates present as stored food such as starch and glycogen
Structural polysaccharides
carbohydrates used in structure formation
Homopolysaccharides
polysaccharides composed of the same monomer
Cellulose
Most abundant organic unbranched, linear homopolysaccharide of ß-d-glucose units at a ß 1’-4” linkage which is used as the main component of plant cell walls and to form Rayon fibre.
Starch
Homopolysaccharides made of ⍺-D-glucose units used and composed of 20% amylose and 80% amylopectin to store food in plants and gives a blue colour with iodine solution
Amylose
unbranched homopolysaccharides made up of less ⍺-D-glucose units at a 1’-4” linkage
Amylopectin
branched homopolysaccharide made up of more ⍺-D-glucose units.
Amylopecting branching occurs approx. …
every 20-30 ⍺-D-glucose units at 1’-4” & and 1’-6”
Glycogen
highly branched homopolysaccharide of approx. 6 lakh ⍺-D-glucose units used as a storage form of carbohydrate in the liver and muscles of animals at
Chitin
homopolysaccharide which is the linear polymer of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine and an important component of the exoskeleton of Arthropods and cell wall of fungi
Inulin
smallest storage water-soluble homopolysaccharide of 25-35 fructose units linked by ß-1’-2” bonds found in the roots of Dahlia and Artichokes.
Dextrin
intermediate homopolysaccharide obtained by the digestion of glycogen and starch and hydrolyzed to from maltose and glucose
Heteropolysaccharides
polysaccharides composed of different monosaccharides
Hyaluronic acid
heteropolysaccharides made of D-glucuronic acid and N-acetyl-D-glucosamine arranged alternately to form a binding material (animal cement)found in the extracellular matrix of connective tissue for its toughness and flexibility of cartilage and tendons
Chondroitin
heteropolysaccharide which occurs in connective tissue
Heparin
heteropolysaccharide which is an anticoagulant of blood
Pectins
heteropolysaccharide found in cell walls where it binds cellulose fibres in bundles
Hemicellulose
heteropolysaccharide present in cell wall
Agar
mucopolysaccharide obtained from red algae to be used as a culture medium in laboratory
Lipids
hydrophobic micromolecules that do not form polymers and provide more energy than carbohydrates stored as fats and its derivatives
Simple Lipids
three long chain fatty acids and a glycerol bonded by an ester bond to form a tryglycerol
Glycerol
a trihydroxy sugar alcohol or trihydroxy propane in tryglycerides
Fatty acids
long chains with a carboxyl group and an R group which could be a methyl, ethyl, or a higher number of CH2 groups
Triglycerides
simple lipid made by 3 fatty acid chains and a glycerol
Saturated Fatty acid chains
Non-essential and less reactive fatty acids that are present in solid form due to the presence of only C-C single bonds and found in mostly in animals except fish.
Unsaturated fatty acid chains
Essential highly reactive fatty acids that are present in a liquid form due to the presence of C-C double AND single bonds and are found in mostly plants and fish
MUFA
monounsaturated fatty acid chains composed of 18-C Oleic acid
PUFA
polyunsaturated fatty acid chains composed of 18-C Linoleic or 20-C Arachidonic acid
Waxes
Monoesters with only one molecule of fatty acid attached to a monohydroxy alcohol
Compound Lipids
lipids composed of phospholipids
Phospholipids
Amphipathic lipids in the cell membrane composed of 2 molecules of fatty acid chains, 1 glycerol, H3PO4, and a nitrogenous compound.
Amphipathic
Having hydrophobic tails and a hydrophilic tail
Lecithin or Phosphatidyl choline
phospholipid attached to a nitrogeneous choline located in the cell membrane
Cephalin
phospholipid attached to a nitrogenous Ethanolamine in nervous tissues, egg yolk, and blood platelets
Sphingolipids
Phospholipids with an amino alcohol sphingosine instead of a glycerol at the myelin sheath of nerves
Glycolipids
A compound lipid with one fatty acid, one sphingosine, and one galactose
Gangliosides
these occur in nerve ganglia and spleen
Derived Lipids
complex lipids derived from simple or compound lipids that are insoluble in water and soluble in organic solvents
Steroids
derived lipids that exhibit tetracyclic structure and regulate organismal processes
Sterols
Also known as cholesterol, it acts as the parent steroid and transforms into Cholecalciferol (Vitamin D0) when exposed to UV radiation
Sterones
Ketonic steroids used as sex hormones such as testosterone and progesterone
Chromolipid
most complex lipid in plasma membrane composed of repeated isoprene units
Proteins
Macromolecules made from C, H, O, N, S and the heteropolymers to amino acids
Structure of amino acid
Side group, one carboxyl, one hydrogen, and one alkaline compound bonded to a central carbon atom
Amino acids
organic amphoteric compounds containing an amino group and an acidic group on the same carbon with substituted methanes
Isoelectric point
point of pH where amino acids have both positive and negative charges in equal amounts
Threonine
essential amino acids
Note 
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