psych final

Teratogens

Any substance or agent that can negatively affect the development of a fetus during pregnancy.

Visual cliff

An apparatus designed to test depth perception in infants and animals. Ex: A clear glass surface creating the illusion of a sudden-drop off as researchers analyze if the subject avoid the apparent edge.

Rooting reflex

An involuntary motor reflex aka the frontal release reflexes that is mediated by the brainstem. It allows newborns to locate and feed from a breast or bottle.

Imprinting

A rapid and irreversible learning process that occurs during a critical period early in an animal’s life. This involves the formation of a strong attachment to a specific object or individual, typically the mother figure.

Menopause

The stage of a woman's life when her menstrual periods stop permanently, and she can no longer get pregnant.

Schemas

Mental frameworks or cognitive structures that organize and interpret our knowledge about the world.

Sensorimotor stage

The period of development from birth to 2 years old, where babies use their senses and motor skills to learn about the world around them.

Object permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are hidden or out of sight.

Preoperational stage

2nd stage of cognitive development with the ages of 2-7 years old where children begin to use symbols and language to represent objects and ideas, but struggle to think logically. They don’t know conservation and usually have high egos.

Animism

The belief that non-living objects or animals have life-like characteristics such as feelings and desires. Ex: “The clouds are crying”

Theory of mind

The ability to understand that other people have different mental states which are distinct from their own. This allows individuals to predict their behavior based on these mental states.

Concrete operational stage

A stage from 7-12 years old where children begin to develop logical thinking and can use them to solve problems. They begin to classify objects by their similarities and differences.

Systematic thinking

Understanding complex phenomena by considering the interrelationships and interactions between multiple components within a system.

Formal operational stage

Starting from 11 years old to adulthood, individuals develop the ability to think abstractly and reason logically with hypothetical situations.

Scaffolding

The temporary support or guidance provided to students, to help them accomplish a task or skill that they wouldn’t be able to do independently.

Zone of proximal development

The gap between what a learner can do independently and what they they can do with adult guidance or collaboration with peers.

Authoritarian parenting 

A strict style of parenting that places high expectations on children, setting rules without any explanation.

Authoritative parenting

Parents who are nurturing, responsive, and supportive yet set firm limits for their children.

Permissive parenting

Being nurturing and warm, but reluctant to impose limits as these parents are not very demanding. 

Emerging adulthood

A phase of the life span between adolescence - and full fledged adulthood, usually ranging from about 18-29 years old.

Stage theory of psychosocial development (Erickson)

Erik Erickson’s theory that people advance through the stages of development based on how they adjust to social crises throughout their lives. 

Adverse childhood experiences

Potentially traumatic events that occur in childhood like violence or abuse.

Achievement (adolescent development)

The stage where individuals begin to pursue and accomplish personal goals and academic successes.

Diffusion (adolescent development)

A state where an individual has not yet developed a strong sense of self or personal identity.

Foreclosure (adolescent development)

When an individual commits to an identity without exploring any other options.

Moratorium (adolescent development) 

A stage where individuals actively explore different roles, values, and beliefs before committing to a particular identity.

Classical conditioning

Learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally produces a behavior.

Unconditioned stimulus

Something that naturally triggers an automatic response. Ex: The smell of food which causes the feeling of hunger

Unconditioned response

An automatic response which is not learned, but natural. Ex: Feeling hungry after smelling food. 

Conditioned response

A behavior that does not come naturally, but must be learned by an individual by pairing a neutral stimulus with a potent stimulus. 

Conditioned stimulus

Produces a reaction only after the object has learned to associate it with a given outcome.

Spontaneous recovery

A behavior that is believed to be extinct unexpectedly and quickly returns after a period or rest or lessened response.

Counterconditioning

Conditioning someone to change their response from fear to excitement or excitement to fear.

Taste aversion

A learned association between the taste of a particular food and illness such that the food is considered to be the cause of the illness.

One-trial conditioning

Learning takes place in a single pairing of a response and stimulus and is not strengthened over time by repeated exposure to a stimulus.

Biological preparedness

The idea that people and animals are inclined to form associations between certain stimuli and responses. Ex: Humans fearing fire

One trial learning

A single experience with a stimulus or event can lead to a lasting change in behavior or knowledge.

Habituation

A process in which an organism’s response to a repeated stimulus, gradually decreases over time since we become less sensitive.

Operant conditioning

Learning process that uses rewards and punishments to modify behavior.

Law of effect

Behaviors that produce a satisfying outcome are more likely to be repeated in the future. Behaviors with bad outcomes are less likely to occur.

Positive reinforcement

Adding a reward after following a desired behavior will increase the likelihood the behavior will occur again. Ex: A dog receiving a treat after performing a treat.

Negative reinforcement

The idea of taking away an unwanted stimulus in order to encourage good behavior. Ex: Taking away chores so that a kid can study more.

Primary reinforcers

Anything that satisfies a basic biological need like water, food, shelter, and pleasure.

Secondary reinforcers

Anything that gains its reinforcing value through association with primary reinforcers like money, praise, or good grades.

Reinforcement discrimination

The process of learning to associate a stimulus with the availability of a reward/punishment. Ex: A learner picking an apple from a basket of fruit, after being asked to pick an apple.

Reinforcement generalization

A behavior learned and reinforced in one context is also exhibited in similar situations. Ex: A kid receiving praise after demonstrating good behavior in one class, so now she always has good behavior in the rest of her classes.

Fixed interval

A set amount of time between rewards to encourage desired behaviors. Ex: Weekly paychecks.

Variable interval

When a reward is given after a random amount of time has passed since the last reward. Ex: Students taking breaks after various periods of study time.

Fixed ratio

The number of action must be completed in order to receive a reward.

Variable ratio

A schedule of reinforcement that rewards behavior after an unpredictable number of responses. Ex: A win in gambling which can occur at any time.

Vicarious conditioning

Learning from the reactions of others by observing how they respond to environmental stimuli and the consequences of their actions.