Ch11: Social Structure and Demographics

Sociology

Study of society

Macrosociology

Focus on large groups and social structures

Microsociology

Focus on small groups and individuals

Social Structure

System of people in society organized by characteristic relationship patterns

Functionalism

Society parts serve specific functions (macrosociology)

Equilibrium between institutions and social facts

Normal State: Parts fulfill functions

Abnormal/Pathogenic State: Parts do not fulfill functions

Functionalism Structures: Institutions

Meet needs of society

Functionalism Structure: Social Facts

Ways of thinking cannot be influenced by individual

Coercive effect on individuals

Functionalism: Function

Beneficial consequences of people’s actions

Keep society in balance

Functionalism: Dysfunctions

Harmful consequences of people’s actions

Undermine social system equilibrium

Functionalism: Manifest Function

Intended action helping system

Functionalism: Latent Functions

Unintended consequences on other parts of society from manifest functions

Functionalism: Social Change

Caused by adaptations to production, distribution, and coordination changes

Restore equilibrium

Conflict Theory

Institutions benefit powerful individuals and create inequalities (macrosociology)

Conflicts between groups continue until equal power distribution

Conflict Theory: Capitalist Thesis

Bourgeoisie run factories

Proletariat provide labour

“Status quo”

Conflict Theory: Capitalist Antithesis

Proletariat develop class consciousness

Oppose thesis

Conflict Theory: Capitalist Synthesis

Resolve tension between thesis and antithesis

Create “middle” position and new thesis

Symbolic Interactionism

Individuals attach meaning to objects/symbols from past experiences in society

Symbolic Interactionism: 3 Tenets

1. Action depends on meaning given
2. Give meaning based on social interactions (diff meanings for diff people)
3. Meanings can change

Social Constructionism

Social agreement creates value for objects (significance of concepts/principles)

Social Constructionism: Weak

Brute facts (can’t be explained by other facts)

Institutional facts (created by social conventions, rely on other facts)

Social Constructionism: Strong

Rely on language and habits/actions

No brute facts

Social Constructionism: Intangible Concepts

Depend on interactions and decisions of society

Change with social norms and opinions

Ex: Honour, justice

Social Constructionism: Physical Objects

Imbue with value

Ex: Coins

Rational Choice Theory

Decision-making from considering benefits and harms to individual

Social actions chosen for highest benefit-to-harm ratio

Rational Choice Theory Assumption: Completeness

Actions can be ranked

Rational Choice Theory Assumption: Transitivity

Preferred actions are more beneficial than all other non-preferred actions

Rational Choice Theory Assumption: Independence of Irrelevant Alternatives

Adding actions does not relative ranking of other actions

Exchange Theory

Focus on interactions in groups

Choose behaviour with social rewards/approval

Avoid behaviour with social punishments/disapproval

Exchange Theory: Reward Frequency

More frequent reward = Decrease reward value

Feminist Theory

Subordination of one gender through social structures and institutional discrimination

Feminist Theory: Gender Roles

Behaviours expected of genders

Feminist Theory: Sexual Inequality

Differential expectations of behaviour between genders

Financial inequality

Glass ceiling phenomenon (women’s difficulty attaining high-level positions)

Feminist Theory: Gender Oppression

Oppression and abuse of women

Feminist Theory: Structural Oppression

Women’s subordination from capitalism, patriarchy, and racism

Social Institutions

Social structures regulating acceptable social behaviours

Meet needs of society

Social Institutions: Conservative View

Natural positive products of human nature

Social Institutions: Progressive View

Artificial creations designed to help humanity

Social Institutions: Family

Patterns of kinship differ across time and culture

Stages of coupling, relationship changes between spouses, parenting

Family: Domestic Violence

Spousal abuse

Family: Elder Abuse

Neglecting older relative

Family: Child Abuse

Neglecting child

Social Institutions: Education

Teach students info, cognitive skills, and hidden curriculum (social norms)

Education: Teacher Expectancy

Teachers tend to get what they expect from students

Determine student performance (self-fulfilling prophecy)

Education: SES Effect

Lower SES = Decreased education = Decreased health

Social Institutions: Religion

Social activity patterns organized around beliefs seeking to address meaning of existence

Religion: Religiosity

Strength of one’s religious beliefs

Religion: Denominations/Sects

Division of major religions sharing some beliefs

Religion: Church

Religious groups

Can be divided into denominations

Religion: Cult

Extreme/deviant philosophies from larger religion

Religion: Secularization

Religious groups shift away from historical religion and towards rationality and scientific thinking

Religion: Fundamentalism

Religious groups maintain adherence to religious code

Social Institutions: Government and Economy

Systematic political and capital relationship arrangement

Bidirectional influence on other social institutions

Government: Democracy

Citizens elect representatives

Government: Monarchy

Royal ruler

Power limited by constitution and parliamentary system

Government: Dictatorship

1 person holds power

Government: Theocracy

Power held by religious leaders

Government: Communism

Classless and moneyless

Resources shared by all society members

Government: Charismatic Leader

Leader with compelling personality

Economy: Capitalism

Free market trade

Private businesses driven by supply and demand

Capitalism: Division of Labour

Components of larger tasks separated and assigned to skilled/trained individuals

Economy: Socialism

Businesses shared

Compensation provided based on individual contributions (equal profit distribution)

Social Institution: Healthcare and Medicine

Maintain/improve health statuses

Healthcare and Medicine: Life Course Approach

Consider comprehensive patient history when providing treatment

Healthcare and Medicine: Patient Roles

Past: Sick role, patient not responsible for illness

Present: Patients responsible for their health

Healthcare and Medicine: Medicalization

Human conditions defined and treated as medical conditions

Healthcare and Medicine: Ethics

4 tenets

Medical Ethics: Beneficence

Act on patient’s best interest

Medical Ethics: Nonmaleficence

Avoid treatments where potential for warm outweigh potential for benefit

Medical Ethics: Respect for Autonomy

Respect patients’ decisions and choices for own healthcare (right to refuse)

Medical Ethics: Justice

Treat similar patients with similar care

Fair resource distribution

Culture

Unique group lifestyles passed through familial lines

Culture: Ethnography

Study of cultures through ethnographic methods

Material Culture

Cultural artifacts (physical items)

Most visible during ceremonies

Symbolic (Nonmaterial) Culture

Ideas representing group

Culture Lag

Symbolic culture slower to change than material culture

Culture: Language

Symbol system

Culture: Values

Deemed important by individual

Dictate ethical principals and behaviour standards

Culture: Belief

Deemed the truth by individual

Can result in cultural barriers

Culture: Norms

Societal rules defining acceptable behaviour

Culture: Ritual

Formal ceremony involving objects, symbolism, and mandates on acceptable behaviour

Evolution Impacts on Culture

Pass down info to next gen

Create sense of loyalty and allegiance

Culture Impacts on Evolution

Favouring genetic traits from cultural values and beliefs

Demographics

Population statistics

Demographic Categories: Age

Separate into age cohorts

Ageism

Prejudice/discrimination based on person’s age

Age: Life Course Theory

Aging = Social, psychological, biological process from birth to death

Living longer changes social process

Age Stratification Theory

Age regulates generation’s behaviour

Age: Activity Theory

How older generations view themselves

Roles lost from old age must be replaced

Age: Disengagement Theory

Older adults and society separate (isolation)

Age: Continuity Theory

People maintain same life structure over time

Demographic Categories: Sex

Determined by chromosomes (biology)

Demographic Categories: Gender

Identity and Expression

Social construct corresponding to specific traits associated with biological sex

Emphasize roles and behaviours of men and women

Gender Inequality

Empowering 1 gender to the detriment of the other

Gender Segregation

Separate individuals based on perceived gender

Demographic Categories: Race

Social construct based on phenotypic differences (real or perceived) between groups

Racialization

Define group as minority race

Racial Formation Theory

Racial identity depend on political, economic, and social factors

Race: Population Transfer

Group forcefully moved from territory

Race: Inter-Colonialism

Minority group separated and exploited

Absorb minority into majority

Race: Pluralism

Encourage racial diversity in society