AP Psych Final Study Guide (copy)

Descriptive Studies

Involves systematic observations, case studies, and surveys used to gather qualitative or quantitative data without manipulating variables.

Correlational Studies

Examines relationships between variables to identify patterns or associations, but does not imply causation.

Experimental Studies

Tests cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating one or more independent variables while controlling others.

Longitudinal Studies

Studies the same group of individuals over an extended period to track changes or developments.

Cross-sectional Studies

Compares different groups at one point in time to examine variations across demographics, age, or settings.

Informed Consent

Participants must be fully informed about the study and voluntarily agree to participate.

Confidentiality

Researchers must ensure that participant data is kept private and secure.

Protection from Harm

Participants should not experience physical or emotional harm during the research process.

Debriefing After Study

Participants must be informed about the study's purpose and any deception involved.

Descriptive Statistics

Summarizes data using measures such as mean, median, mode, and standard deviation.

Inferential Statistics

Uses techniques like t-tests, ANOVA, and p-values to draw conclusions about populations from sample data.

Frontal Lobe

Responsible for decision-making, problem-solving, emotional regulation, and planning.

Parietal Lobe

Processes sensory information from the body and is involved in spatial reasoning and navigation.

Temporal Lobe

Plays a vital role in hearing, memory formation, and understanding language.

Occipital Lobe

Primarily responsible for visual processing and interpreting visual stimuli.

Cerebellum

Coordinates voluntary movements, maintains balance and posture, and is involved in motor learning.

Brainstem

Controls vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and reflexes.

Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections in response to learning or injury.

Synaptic Pruning

Reduces the number of synapses in the brain during adolescence, enhancing efficiency.

Broca’s Aphasia

Characterized by difficulty in producing speech; comprehension generally remains intact.

Wernicke’s Aphasia

Involves difficulty in understanding language; speech production is fluent but often nonsensical.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Comprises the brain and spinal cord, serving as the control center for processing information.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Divided into somatic and autonomic systems, which regulate bodily functions.

Action Potential

An electrical signal that travels down the axon, essential for neurotransmission.

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals released at synapses that transmit signals between neurons, influencing various functions.

EEG

Records the electrical activity of the brain, useful for diagnosing epilepsy and sleep disorders.

MRI

Provides detailed images of brain structures, identifying lesions or abnormalities.

fMRI

Measures both brain activity and structure, useful for understanding brain function during tasks.

PET Scan

Measures glucose metabolism in the brain, helping to identify areas of activity or dysfunction.

Stimulants

Increase activity in the nervous system, enhancing alertness and energy levels.

Depressants

Slow down activity in the nervous system, producing calming effects.

Hallucinogens

Alter perception, mood, and cognition, leading to profound changes in experience.

Opiates

Relieve pain and can induce euphoria, often leading to dependency.

Marijuana

A unique category with diverse effects, including relaxation and altered perception.

NREM-1

Light sleep, characterized by drifting in and out of sleep and slight muscle twitches.

NREM-2

Deeper sleep stage where sleep spindles appear; still easily disrupted.

NREM-3

Deep sleep, crucial for restorative processes; difficult to awaken during this stage.

REM Sleep

Dreaming occurs, with increased brain activity; essential for memory consolidation.

Insomnia

Difficulty falling asleep or maintaining sleep, leading to daytime fatigue.

Narcolepsy

Sudden, uncontrollable sleep attacks that can occur at any time.

Sleep Apnea

Breathing interruptions during sleep, leading to daytime sleepiness.

Circadian Rhythm

A 24-hour biological clock that regulates the sleep-wake cycle.

Absolute Threshold

The minimum level of stimulus intensity needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time.

Difference Threshold

The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli.

Monocular Cues

Depth cues that can be perceived with one eye.

Binocular Cues

Depth cues that require both eyes for accurate perception of distance.

Selective Attention

The process of focusing on specific stimuli while ignoring others.

Divided Attention

The capacity to split focus among multiple stimuli or tasks simultaneously.

Bottom-up Processing

Information processing that begins with sensory input, building up to perception.

Top-down Processing

Concept-driven processing that relies on prior knowledge to interpret sensory input.

Gestalt Principle of Closure

The tendency to perceive incomplete shapes as complete.

Gestalt Principle of Proximity

Objects that are close together are perceived as belonging together.

Gestalt Principle of Similarity

Items that are similar are grouped together.

Gestalt Principle of Continuity

The tendency to perceive lines as continuous and smooth.

Gestalt Principle of Figure-Ground

The ability to distinguish an object from its background.

Cones

Responsible for color vision and function best in bright light conditions.

Rods

Sensitive to low light, providing vision in dim environments.

Trichromatic Theory

Proposes that color vision is based on three color receptors (red, green, blue).

Opponent-Process Theory

Suggests that color perception is controlled by opposing pairs.

Endorphins

Natural pain-relieving chemicals produced by the body.

Substance P

A neurotransmitter that transmits pain signals from the periphery to the CNS.

Adrenaline

Released during the fight-or-flight response, increasing heart rate.

Cortisol

Known as the stress hormone, it modulates various bodily functions during stress.

Melatonin

Regulates sleep-wake cycles by promoting sleep onset.

Oxytocin

Plays a crucial role in social bonding and maternal behaviors.

Retrograde Amnesia

Inability to recall past events or memories prior to a specific incident.

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories after a specific incident.

Misinformation Effect

The phenomenon where memory of an event becomes less accurate due to misleading information.

Perceptual Set

A mental predisposition to perceive stimuli in a certain way.

Mental Set

A tendency to approach problems in a certain way based on past experiences.

Priming

The activation of certain associations in memory just before carrying out an action.

Framing

The way information is presented affects decisions and judgments.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one’s preconceptions.

Functional Fixedness

The inability to see alternative uses for an object, hindering problem-solving.

Retroactive Interference

When new information interferes with the ability to recall old information.

Proactive Interference

When old information inhibits the ability to learn new information.

Trial and Error

Involves repeated attempts to find a solution until success is achieved.

Algorithms

Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution to a problem.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts that often lead to a solution but do not guarantee correct answers.

Insight

A sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem.

Sensorimotor Stage

(0-2 years) Understanding the world through sensory experiences and motor activities.

Preoperational Stage

(2-7 years) Characterized by symbolic thinking and egocentrism.

Concrete Operational Stage

(7-11 years) Involves logical thinking about concrete events.

Formal Operational Stage

(12+ years) Emergence of abstract reasoning and hypothetical thinking.

Trust vs. Mistrust

(0-1 year) First stage in Erikson’s psychosocial development.

Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt

(1-3 years) Second stage in Erikson’s psychosocial development.

Initiative vs. Guilt

(3-6 years) Third stage in Erikson’s psychosocial development.

Industry vs. Inferiority

(6-12 years) Fourth stage in Erikson’s psychosocial development.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

(12-18 years) Fifth stage in Erikson’s psychosocial development.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Young adulthood stage in Erikson’s psychosocial development.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Middle adulthood stage in Erikson’s psychosocial development.

Integrity vs. Despair

Late adulthood stage in Erikson’s psychosocial development.

Secure Attachment

Infants have a sense of safety with their caregiver, leading to healthier emotional development.

Avoidant Attachment

Infants show indifference to caregiver’s presence or absence.

Ambivalent Attachment

Infants display anxiety and clinginess, leading to difficulty exploring environments freely.

Authoritative Parenting

High warmth combined with high control, leading to positive child outcomes.

Authoritarian Parenting

Low warmth, high control; often results in compliant but less self-assured children.

Permissive Parenting

High warmth, low control; often results in children who may struggle with authority.

Neglectful Parenting

Low warmth and low control; often leads to children feeling unloved.

Sensory Memory

Brief retention of sensory information, lasting only a second or two.