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Personality

the relatively stable set of psychological characteristics that influences the way an individual interacts with his or her environment and how he or she feels, thinks and behaves
-comes from genetics and how their learning experiences

dispositional approach

individual possess stable traits or characteristics that influence their attitudes and behaviours
-predisposed to behave in a certain way

contrast to dispositional approach

However, decades of research produced mixed and inconsistent findings that failed to support the usefulness of personality as a predictor of organizational behaviour and job performance. As a result, there was a dramatic decrease in personality research and a decline in the use of personality tests for selection

situational approach

characteristics of the organizational setting influence people's attitudes and behaviour (rewards/punishments)
-many studies have shown that job satisfaction and other work-related attitudes are largely determined by situational factors, such as the characteristics of work tasks

interactionist approach

orgo behaviour is a function of both dispositions and the situation, so to predict and understand orgo behvaiour one must know somehthing about an individual's personality and the setting in which he or she works (most widely accepted approach to orgo behaviour)

interactionist example

To give you an example of the interactionist perspective, consider the role of personality in different situations. To keep it simple, we will describe situations as being either "weak" or "strong." In weak situations, it is not always clear how a person should behave, while in strong situations, there are clear expectations for appropriate behaviour. As a result, personality has the most impact in weak situations. This is because in these situations (e.g., a newly formed volunteer community organization), there are loosely defined roles, few rules, and weak reward and punishment contingencies. However, in strong situations, which have more defined roles, rules, and contingencies (e.g., routine military operations), personality tends to have less impact.

trait activation theory

Traits lead to certain behaviours only when the situation makes the need for the trait important
-personality characteristics influence people's behaviour when the situation calls for a particular personality characteristic
-key concept here is fit: putting the right person in the right job, group, or organization and exposing different employees to different management styles

five factor model

five basic but general ways to describe personality
-extraversion, emotional stability/neuroticism,agreeableness, conscientinousness, openess
[OCEAN]

extraversion

extent a person is outgoing vs shy
-tend to enjoy social situations, energetic
-good for sales since being sociable in important for success

emotional stability/neuroticism

degree of emotional control
-high emotional stability (low neuroticism) are self confident and have high self esteem
-for pretty much any job people with low stability will cause issues with performance
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agreeableness

extent a person is friendly and approachable
-more agreeeable people are warm, considerate, firendly, and eager to help others
-good for jobs that require interaction, cooperation and nurturing others

conscientiousness

degree a person is responsible and achievement oriented
-more conscientious peole are dependable and positively motivated
-self disciplined, hard working
-highly conscientious people do well in jobs as they are hard working and achievement oriented - best predictor of job performance compared to all different personality factors

openess

extent a person thinks flexibly and is receptive to new ideas
-more open people tend toward creativity and inovation while less open people tend towards the status quo
-People who are high on openness to experience are likely to do well in jobs that involve learning and creativity, given that they tend to be intellectual, curious, and imaginative and tend to have broad interests

adaptive performance

-Personality is believed to be an important predictor of adaptive performance. Among the Big Five dimensions, emotional stability, extraversion, and openness to experience are believed to be especially important
-Emotional stability should be related to adaptive performance because of the propensity to stay calm and level-headed in the face of challenge and difficulty and a greater willingness to face and deal with change.
-Extraversion should predict adaptive performance because extraverts are more likely to welcome challenge when confronted with a novel task or work environment and to initiate changes (e.g., enterprising activities). This is especially likely for ambition, which is a specific aspect of extraversion. -Openness to experience should be related to adaptive performance because there is evidence that it relates to the pursuit of and adjustment to new environments.
-On the other hand, because conscientiousness is associated with a preference for routine and structure, conscientious individuals might be too inflexible to cope with and adjust to changes in the work environment.
-Finally, agreeableness is not likely to be related to adaptive performance because it is of most importance for interpersonal interactions.

random shit

-First, there is evidence that each of the Big Five dimensions is related to job performance, employee engagement, and organizational citizenship behaviours
-Second, research has also found that the Big Five are related to other work behaviours. For example, one study found that conscientiousness is related to retention and attendance at work and is also an important antidote for counterproductive behaviours such as theft, absenteeism, and disciplinary problems.
-The Big Five are also related to work motivation, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment.
-The Big Five are also related to career success. High conscientiousness, extraversion, and emotional stability have been found to be positively associated with a higher income and occupational status.

locus of control

A set of beliefs about whether one's behaviour is controlled mainly by internal or external forces
High internal control - behaviour determiend by sself initiative, personal actions, free will
High external control - behaviour determined by fate, luck, powerful people

internal control

Internals tend to see stronger links between the effort they put into their jobs and the performance level that they achieve. In addition, they perceive to a greater degree than externals that the organization will notice high performance and reward it. Since internals believe that their work behaviour will influence the rewards they achieve, they are more likely to be aware of and to take advantage of information that will enable them to perform effectively.
-Evidently, because they perceive themselves as being able to control what happens to them, people who are high on internal control are more satisfied with their jobs and more committed to their organizations, and they earn more money and achieve higher organizational positions. In addition, they seem to perceive less stress, cope with stress better, experience less burnout, and engage in more careful career planning. They are also less likely to be absent from work and more likely to be satisfied with their lives.

self monitoring

The extent to which people observe and regulate how they appear and behave in social settings and relationships.
-People who "wear their heart on their sleeve" are low self-monitors. They are not so concerned with scoping out and fitting in with those around them. Their opposites are high self-monitors, who take great care to observe the thoughts, actions, and feelings of those around them and control the images that they project.

high self monitors

In particular, high selfmonitors tend to show concern for socially appropriate emotions and behaviours, to tune in to social and interpersonal cues, and to regulate their behaviour and self-presentation according to these cues.
-For one thing, high self-monitors tend to gravitate toward jobs that require, by their nature, a degree of role-playing and the exercise of their selfpresentation skills. Sales, law, public relations, and politics are examples.
-Are high self-monitors always at an organizational advantage? Not likely. They are unlikely to feel comfortable in ambiguous social settings in which it is hard to determine exactly what behaviours are socially appropriate. Dealing with unfamiliar cultures (national or corporate) might provoke stress. Also, some roles require people to go against the grain or really stand up for what they truly believe in. Thus, high selfmonitoring types would seem to be weak innovators and would have difficulty resisting social pressure.

self esteem

The degree to which a person has a positive self-evaluation
-in general, people tend to be highly motivated to protect themselves from threats to their self-esteem

Behavioural plasticity theory

People with low self-esteem tend to be more susceptible to external and social influences than those who have high self-esteem.
-Thus, events and people in the organizational environment have more impact on the beliefs and actions of employees with low self-esteem. This occurs because, being unsure of their own views and behaviour, they are more likely to look to others for information and confirmation. In addition, people who have low selfesteem seek social approval from others, approval that they might gain from adopting others' views, and they do not react well to ambiguous and stressful situations. This is another example of the interactionist approach, in that the effect of the work environment on people's beliefs and actions is partly a function of their self-esteem.
-Employees with low self-esteem also tend to react badly to negative feedback—it lowers their subsequent performance. This means that managers should be especially cautious when using punishment, as discussed later in this chapter, with employees with low self-esteem.

positive affectivity

People who are high on positive affectivity experience positive emotions and moods like joy and excitement and view the world, including themselves and other people, in a positive light. They tend to be cheerful, enthusiastic, lively, sociable, and energetic.
-Research has found that people who are high on PA have higher job satisfaction and job performance and engage in more organizational citizenship behaviours. High-PA employees are also more creative at work, and there is some evidence that PA is a key factor that links happiness to success at work and in life. In addition, a recent study on personality and employee engagement found that among eight personality traits, PA is by far the strongest predictor of employee engagement

negative affectivity

People who are high on negative affectivity experience negative emotions and moods like fear and anxiety and view the world in a negative light. They have an overall negative view of themselves and the world around them, and they tend to be distressed, depressed, and unhappy. It is important to understand that PA and NA are not opposite ends of a continuum but are relatively independent dimensions.
-By comparison, individuals who are high on NA report lower job satisfaction and engagement and have poorer job performance. High-NA employees experience more stressful work conditions and report higher levels of workplace stress and strain. NA has also been found to be associated with counterproductive work behaviours (e.g., harassment and physical aggression), withdrawal behaviours (e.g., absenteeism and turnover), and occupational injury

proactive behaviour

Taking initiative to improve one's current circumstances or creating new ones is known as proactive behaviour . It involves challenging the status quo rather than passively adapting to present conditions. Some people are very good at this because they have a stable disposition toward proactive behaviour, known as a "proactive personality.

Proactive personality

Individuals who have a proactive personality are relatively unconstrained by situational forces and act to change and influence their environment. Proactive personality is a stable personal disposition that reflects a tendency to take personal initiative across a range of activities and situations and to effect positive change in one's environment
-People who do not have a proactive personality are more likely to be passive and to react and adapt to their environment. As a result, they tend to endure and to be shaped by the environment instead of trying to change it

General self-efficacy (GSE)

General self-efficacy (GSE) is a general trait that refers to an individual's belief in his or her ability to perform successfully in a variety of challenging situations. GSE is considered to be a motivational trait rather than an affective trait, because it reflects an individual's belief that he or she can succeed at a variety of tasks rather than how an individual feels about him- or herself.
-Thus, if you have experienced many successes in your life, you probably have high GSE, whereas somebody who has experienced many failures probably has low GSE. Individuals who are high on GSE are better able to adapt to novel, uncertain, and adverse situations. In addition, employees with higher GSE have higher job satisfaction and job performance.

core self-evaluations (CSEs)

Unlike the other personality characteristics described in this chapter, core self-evaluations (CSEs) are a multidimensional trait and a broad personality concept that consists of several more specific traits. The idea behind the theory of core self-evaluations is that individuals hold evaluations about themselves and their self-worth or worthiness, competence, and capability.
-The four traits have already been described in this chapter and include self-esteem, general selfefficacy, locus of control, and neuroticism (emotional stability).
-Research on CSEs has found that these traits are among the best dispositional predictors of job satisfaction and job performance. People with more positive CSEs have higher levels of job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and job performance.

Personality and Popularity in the Workplace

The results of this study indicate that employees who have higher levels of agreeableness are more popular in the workplace, and those who are more popular receive higher ratings of task performance
-In addition, CSE is positively related to task performance through popularity, especially when agreeableness is high. Thus, personality has implications for popularity in the workplace, which, in turn, has implications for performance

bonus marks

for short answer exam questions write "it dpeends" and you get a free mark

Learning

occurs when practice or experience leads to a relatively permanent change in behaviour potential

what do employees learn?

four primary categories: practical skills, intrapersonal skills, interpersonal skills, and cultural awareness.

practical skills

job-specific skills, knowledge, and technical competence

intrapersonal skills

skills such as problem solving, critical thinking, learning about alternative work processes, and risk taking.

Interpersonal skills

include interactive skills such as communicating, teamwork, and conflict resolution.

cultural awareness

Involves learning the social norms of organizations and understanding company goals, business operations, and company expectations and priorities.

operant learning

Learning by which the subject learns to operate on the environment to achieve certain consequences.

operant learning experiment

In the 1930s, psychologist B. F. Skinner investigated the behaviour of rats confined in a box containing a lever that delivered food pellets when pulled. Initially, the rats ignored the lever, but at some point they would accidentally pull it and a pellet would appear. Over time, the rats gradually acquired the lever-pulling response as a means of obtaining food. In other words, they learned to pull the lever.

Reinforcement

process by which stimuli strengthen behaviours. Thus, a reinforcer is a stimulus that follows some behaviour and increases or maintains the probability of that behaviour

positive reinforcement

increases or maintains the probability of some behaviour by the application or addition of a stimulus to the situation in question.

negative reinforcement

increases or maintains the probability of some behaviour by the removal of a stimulus from the situation in question. Also, negative reinforcement occurs when a response prevents some event or stimulus from occurring. In each case, the removed or prevented stimulus is a negative reinforcer.
-Managers who continually nag their employees unless the employees work hard are attempting to use negative reinforcement. The only way employees can stop the aversive nagging is to work hard and be diligent.

orgo errors:Confusing Rewards with Reinforcers

Organizations and individual managers frequently "reward" workers with things such as pay, promotions, fringe benefits, paid vacations, overtime work, and the opportunity to perform challenging tasks. Such rewards can fail to serve as reinforcers, however, because organizations do not make them contingent on specific behaviours that are of interest to the organization, such as attendance, innovation, or productivity

orgo errors: neglecting diversity

Organizations often fail to appreciate individual differences in preferences for reinforcers

orgo errors: Neglecting Important Sources of Reinforcement

While concentrating on potential reinforcers of a formal nature, such as pay or promotions, organizations and their managers often neglect those that are administered by co-workers or are intrinsic to the jobs being performed. Many managers cannot understand why a worker would persist in potentially dangerous horseplay despite threats of a pay penalty or dismissal. Frequently, such activity is positively reinforced by the attention provided by the joker's co-workers. In fact, in a particularly boring job, such threats might act as positive reinforcers for horseplay by relieving the boredom, especially if the threats are never carried out. Two important sources of reinforcement that managers often ignore are performance feedback and social recognition.

performance feedback

involves providing quantitative or qualitative information on past performance for the purpose of changing or maintaining performance in specific ways.
-Performance feedback is most 43 effective when it is (a) conveyed in a positive manner; (b) delivered immediately after the performance is observed; (c) represented visually, such as in graph or chart form; and (d) specific to the behaviour that is being targeted for feedback.

social recognition

involves informal acknowledgment, attention, praise, approval, or genuine appreciation for work well done from one individual or group to another. It is so important to employees that many would leave their job if their manager failed to provide it

reinforcement strats

To obtain the fast acquisition of some response, continuous and immediate reinforcement should be used—that is, the reinforcer should be applied every time the behaviour of interest occurs, and it should be applied without delay after each occurrence. Many conditions exist in which the fast acquisition of responses is desirable. These include correcting the behaviour of "problem" employees, training employees for emergency operations, and dealing with unsafe work behaviours.
-Put simply, behaviour that individuals learn under such conditions tends not to persist when reinforced less frequently or stopped should not use continuouss immediate reinforcement
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Behaviour tends to be persistent when it is learned under conditions of partial and delayed reinforcement. That is, it will tend to persist under reduced or terminated reinforcement when not every instance of the In most cases, the supervisor who wishes to reinforce prompt attendance knows that he or she will not be able to stand by the shop door every morning to compliment the crew's timely entry. Given this constraint, the supervisor should complement prompt attendance occasionally, perhaps later in the day. This should increase the persistence of promptness and reduce the employees' reliance on the boss's monitoring.

extinction

simply involves terminating the reinforcement that is maintaining some unwanted behaviour. If the behaviour is not reinforced, it will gradually dissipate or be extinguished

punishment

involves following an unwanted behaviour with some unpleasant, aversive stimulus. In theory, when the actor learns that the behaviour leads to unwanted consequences, this should reduce the probability of the response. -tho some people may not think of the punishment as a punishment but as reinforcement and vice versa

using punishment effectively

-Unfortunately, punishment has some unique characteristics that often limit its effectiveness in stopping unwanted activity. First, while punishment provides a clear signal as to which activities are inappropriate, it does not by itself demonstrate which activities should replace the punished response.
-Both positive and negative reinforcers specify which behaviours are appropriate. Punishment indicates only what is not appropriate. Since no reinforced substitute behaviour is provided, punishment only temporarily suppresses the unwanted response.
-A second difficulty with punishment is that it has a tendency to provoke a strong emotional reaction on the part of the punished individual.

using punishment effectively 2

-Make sure the chosen punishment is truly aversive. Organizations frequently "punish" chronically absent employees by making them take several days off work. Managers sometimes "punish" ineffective performers by requiring them to work overtime, which allows them to earn extra pay. In both cases, the presumed punishment may actually act as a positive reinforcer for the unwanted behaviour.
-Punish immediately.
-Do not reward unwanted behaviours before or after punishment. Many supervisors join in horseplay with their employees until they feel it is time to get some work done. Then, unexpectedly, they do an aboutface and punish those who are still "goofing around."
-Do not inadvertently punish desirable behaviour. This happens commonly in organizations. The manager who does not use all his capital budget for a given fiscal year might have the department's budget for the next year reduced, punishing the prudence of his employees. Government employees who "blow the whistle" on wasteful or inefficient practices might find themselves demoted.

observational learning

process of observing and imitating the behaviour of others. With observational learning, learning occurs by observing or imagining the behaviour of others (models), rather than through direct personal experience
-It is self-reinforcement that occurs in the observational learning process. For one thing, it is reinforcing to acquire an understanding of others who are viewed positively. In addition, we are able to imagine that the reinforcers that the model experiences will come our way when we imitate his or her behaviour.

self efficacy beliefs

refer to beliefs people have about their ability to successfully perform a specific task. At this point, it is important to note the difference between taskspecific self-efficacy and some of the general personality traits discussed earlier in the chapter.
-In particular, unlike self-esteem and general selfefficacy, which are general personality traits, self-efficacy is a task-specific cognitive appraisal of one's ability to perform a specific task. Furthermore, people can have different self-efficacy beliefs for different tasks.
-Because self-efficacy is a cognitive belief rather than a stable personality trait, it can be changed and modified in response to different sources of information.
-Self-efficacy beliefs are important because they influence the activities people choose to perform, the amount of effort and persistence they devote to a task, affective and stress reactions, and job performance

determinants of self efficacy beliefs

performance mastery, observation, verbal persuasion and social influence, physiological state

self regulation

The use of learning principles to regulate one's own behaviour.
-observational learning involves factors such as observation of models, imagination, imitation, and self-reinforcement. Individuals can use these and similar techniques in an intentional way to control their own behaviour. The basic process involves observing one's own behaviour (i.e., selfobservation), comparing the behaviour with a standard (i.e., selfevaluation), and rewarding oneself if the behaviour meets the standard (i.e., self-reinforcement). A key part of the process is people's pursuit of self-set goals that guide their behaviour.
-Research has found that self-regulation can improve learning and result in a change in behaviour.

discrepency shit

When a discrepancy exists between one's goals and performance, individuals are motivated to modify their behaviour in the pursuit of goal attainment, a process known as discrepancy reduction. When individuals attain their goals, they are likely to set even higher and more challenging goals, a process known as discrepancy production. In this way, people continually engage in a process of setting goals in the pursuit of ever higher levels of performance. Thus, discrepancy reduction and discrepancy production lie at the heart of the self-regulatory process.

self regulation techniques

-Collect self-observation data. This involves collecting objective data about one's own behaviour.
-Observe models. The executive might examine the time-management skills of her peers to find someone successful to imitate.
-Set goals.
-Rehearse. The executive might anticipate that she will have to educate her co-workers about her reduced availability. So as not to offend them, she might practise explaining the reason for her revised accessibility
-Reinforce oneself. The executive might promise herself a weekend at the beach with her family the first time she gets her take-home workload down to her target level.

Organizational behaviour modification (O.B. Mod)

involves the systematic use of learning principles to influence organizational behaviour. For example, consider how one company used organizational behaviour modification through the reinforcement of safe working behaviour in a food-manufacturing plant.

Employee recognition programs

are formal organizational programs that publicly recognize and reward employees for specific behaviours. shows the most commonly recognized employee achievements for recognition
-To be effective, a formal employee recognition program must specify (a) how a person will be recognized, (b) the type of behaviour being encouraged, (c) the manner of the public acknowledgement, and (d) a token or icon of the event for the recipient.

Peer recognition programs

An increasing number of organizations have begun to implement a new kind of recognition program called peer recognition. Peer recognition programs are formal programs in which employees can publicly acknowledge, recognize, and reward their co-workers for exceptional work and performance. For example, IT/NET Ottawa Inc. has a peer-topeer recognition program called "My Thanks," in which employees are encouraged to acknowledge co-workers' exceptional work by sending them a cash-valued gift certificate.

Training and development programs

Training and development programs are among the most common types of formal learning programs in organizations. Training refers to planned organizational activities that are designed to facilitate knowledge and skill acquisition to change behaviour and improve performance on one's current job; development focuses on future job responsibilities.

behaviour modelling training (BMT)

n. One of the most widely used and effective methods of training is behaviour modelling training (BMT) , which is a training method in which trainees observe a model performing a task followed by opportunities to practise the observed behaviours. BMT is based on the observational learning component of social cognitive theory and involves the following steps:

bmt steps

-Describe to trainees a set of well-defined behaviours (skills) to be learned.
-Provide a model or models displaying the effective use of those behaviours.
-Provide opportunities for trainees to practise using those behaviours.
-Provide feedback and social reinforcement to trainees following practice.
-Take steps to maximize the transfer of those behaviours to the job.

perception

the process of interpreting the messages of our senses to provide order and meaning to the environment. Perception helps us sort out and organize the complex and varied input received by our senses of sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing. The key word in this definition is interpreting. People frequently base their actions on the interpretation of reality that their perceptual system provides, rather than on reality itself

components of perception

—a perceiver, a target that is being perceived, and some situational context in which the perception is occurring. Each of these components influences the perceiver's impression or interpretation of the target

perceiver

The perceiver's experience, needs, and emotions can affect his or her perceptions of a target.
-Past experiences lead the perceiver to develop expectations
-Frequently, our needs unconsciously influence our perceptions by causing us to perceive what we wish to perceive. Research has demonstrated that perceivers who have been deprived of food will tend to "see" more edible things in ambiguous pictures than will well-fed observers.
-Emotions—such as anger, happiness, or fear—can influence our perceptions

perceptual defence

In some cases, our perceptual system serves to defend us against unpleasant emotions. This phenomenon is known as perceptual defence . We have all experienced cases in which we "see what we want to see" or "hear what we want to hear." In many of these instances, our perceptual system is working to ensure that we do not see or hear things that are threatening.

target

Perception involves interpretation and the addition of meaning to the target, and ambiguous targets are especially susceptible to interpretation and addition. Perceivers have a need to resolve such ambiguities.
-. Writing clearer memos might not always get the message across. Similarly, assigning minority workers to a prejudiced manager will not always improve his or her perceptions of their true abilities. As we shall see shortly, the perceiver does not or cannot always use all the information provided by the target. In these cases, a reduction in ambiguity might not be accompanied by greater accuracy.`

situation

Every instance of perception occurs in some situational context, and this context can affect what one perceives. The most important effect that the situation can have is to add information about the target. Imagine a casual critical comment about your performance from your boss the week before she is to decide whether or not you will be promoted. You will likely perceive this comment very differently from the way you would if you were not up for promotion.

social identity theory

people form perceptions of themselves based on their personal characteristics and memberships in social categories
-As a result, our sense of self is composed of a personal identity and a social identity. Our personal identity is based on our unique personal characteristics, such as our interests, abilities, and traits. Social identity is based on our perception that we belong to various social groups, such as our gender, nationality, religion, occupation, and so on.
-As individuals, we categorize ourselves and others to make sense of and understand the social environment. The choice of specific categories depends on what is most salient and appropriate to the situation.
-For example, we might define people in a meeting according to their job titles. Once a category is chosen, we tend to see members of that category as embodying the most typical attributes of that category, or what are called "prototypes." Similarly, once we locate ourselves in a social category, we tend to perceive ourselves as embodying the prototypical characteristics of the category. In this way, we develop a sense of who and what we are—as well as our values; beliefs; and ways of thinking, acting, and feeling

model of the perceptual process

According to Bruner, when the perceiver encounters an unfamiliar target, the perceiver is very open to the informational cues contained in the target and the situation surrounding it. In this unfamiliar state, the perceiver needs information on which to base perceptions of the target and will actively seek out cues to resolve this ambiguity. Gradually, the perceiver encounters some familiar cues (note the role of the perceiver's experience here) that enable her or him to make a crude categorization of the target, which follows from social identity theory. At this point, the cue search becomes less open and more selective. The perceiver begins to search out cues that confirm the categorization of the target. As this categorization becomes stronger, the perceiver actively ignores or even distorts cues that violate initial perceptions

bruner's perceptual process

three characteristics: percpetion is selective as they do not use all cues available and those they do use are given extra emphasis
-Second, Bruner's model illustrates that our perceptual system works to paint a constant picture of the target. Perceptual constancy refers to the tendency for the target to be perceived in the same way over time or across situations. We have all had the experience of "getting off on the wrong foot" with a teacher or a boss and finding it difficult to change his or her constant perception of us.
-Third, the perceptual system also creates a consistent picture of the target. Perceptual consistency refers to the tendency to select, ignore, and distort cues in such a manner that they fit together to form a homogeneous picture of the target. We strive for consistency in our perception of people. We do not tend to see the same person as both good and bad or dependable and untrustworthy. Often, we distort cues that are discrepant with our general image of a person to make the cues consistent with this image.

primacy effect

One reason for this fast impression formation is our tendency to rely on the cues that we encounter early in a relationship. This reliance on early cues or first impressions is known as the primacy effect . Primacy often has a lasting impact. Thus, the worker who can favourably impress his or her boss in the first few days on the job is in an advantageous position due to primacy

recency effect

people give undue weight to the cues they have encountered most recently. In other words, last impressions count most

central traits

Even though perceivers tend to rely on early information when developing their perceptions, these early cues do not receive equal weight. People tend to organize their perceptions around central traits , personal characteristics of the target that are of special interest to them. The centrality of traits depends on the perceiver's interests and the situation
-Central traits often have a very powerful influence on our perceptions of others. In work settings, physical appearance is a common central trait that is related to a variety of job-related outcomes. Research shows an overwhelming tendency for those who are "attractive" to also be perceived as "good," especially when it comes to judgments about their social competence, qualifications, and potential job success.

implicit personality theories

Each of us has a "theory" about which personality characteristics go together. These are called implicit personality theories . Perhaps you expect hardworking people to also be honest. Perhaps you feel that people of average intelligence tend to be most friendly. To the extent that such implicit theories are inaccurate, they provide a basis for misunderstanding

projection

In the absence of information to the contrary, and sometimes in spite of it, people often assume that others are like themselves. This tendency to attribute one's own thoughts and feelings to others is called projection . In some cases, projection is an efficient and sensible perceptual strategy. After all, people with similar backgrounds or interests often do think and feel similarly
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stereotyping

One way to form a consistent impression of other people is simply to assume that they have certain characteristics by virtue of some category that they fall into as suggested by social identity theory. This perceptual tendency is known as stereotyping , or the tendency to generalize about people in a social category and ignore variations among them.
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why stereotypes exist even if theyre innaccurate

For one thing, even incorrect stereotypes help us process information about others quickly and efficiently. Sometimes, it is easier for the perceiver to rely on an inaccurate stereotype than it is to discover the true nature of the target.

Attribution

the process by which we assign causes or motives to explain people's behaviour. The attribution process is important because many rewards and punishments in organizations are based on judgments about what caused a target person to behave in a certain way.

dispositional attributions

some personality or intellectual characteristic unique to the person is responsible for the behaviour and that the behaviour thus reflects the "true person." If we explain a behaviour as a function of intelligence, greed, friendliness, or laziness, we are making dispositional attributions.

situation attributions

external situation or environment in which the target person exists was responsible for the behaviour and that the person might have had little control over the behaviour. If we explain behaviour as a function of bad weather, good luck, proper tools, or poor advice, we are making situational attributions.

consistency cues

reflect how consistently a person engages in a behaviour over time. For example, unless we see clear evidence of external constraints that force a behaviour to occur, we tend to perceive behaviour that a person performs regularly as indicative of his or her true motives. In other words, high consistency leads to dispositional attributions.

consensus cues

reflect how a person's behaviour compares with that of others. In general, acts that deviate from social expectations provide us with more information about the actor's motives than conforming behaviours do. Thus, unusual, low-consensus behaviour leads to more dispositional attributions than typical, high-consensus behaviour. The person who acts differently from the majority is seen as revealing more of his or her true motives.

distinctive cues

reflect the extent to which a person engages in some behaviour across a variety of situations. When a behaviour occurs across a variety of situations, it lacks distinctiveness, and the observer is prone to provide a dispositional attribution about its cause. We reason that the behaviour reflects a person's true motives if it "stands up" in a variety of environments. Thus, the professor who has generous office hours, stays after class to talk to students, and attends student functions is seen as truly student oriented. The worker whose performance was good in his first job as well as several subsequent jobs is perceived as having real ability
-When a behaviour is highly distinctive, in that it occurs in only one situation, we are likely to assume that some aspect of the situation has caused the behaviour. If the only student-oriented behaviour that we observe is generous office hours, we assume that they are dictated by department policy.

how shit applies

Roshani. Roshani is absent a lot, her co-workers are seldom absent, and she was absent a lot in her previous job. Mika. Mika is absent a lot, her co-workers are also absent a lot, but she was almost never absent in her previous job. Sam. Sam is seldom absent, her co-workers are seldom absent, and she was seldom absent in her previous job. Just what kind of attributions are managers likely to make regarding the absences of Roshani, Mika, and Sam? Roshani's absence is highly consistent, it is a low-consensus behaviour, and it is not distinctive, since she was absent in her previous job. As shown in Exhibit 3.4 , this combination of cues is very likely to prompt a dispositional attribution, perhaps that Roshani is lazy or irresponsible. Mika is also absent consistently, but it is high-consensus behaviour in that her peers also exhibit absence. In addition, the behaviour is highly distinctive—she is Exhibit 3.4 Cue combinations and resulting attributions. absent only on this job. As indicated, this combination of cues will usually result in a situational attribution, perhaps that working conditions are terrible, or that the boss is nasty. Finally, Sam's absence is inconsistent. In addition, it is similar to that of co-workers and not distinctive, in that she was inconsistently absent on her previous job as well. As shown, this combination of cues suggests that some temporary, short-term situational factor is causing her absence. It is possible that a sick child occasionally requires her to stay home.

Fundamental Attribution Error

Suppose you make a mistake in attributing a cause to someone else's behaviour. Would you be likely to err on the side of a dispositional cause or a situational cause? Substantial evidence indicates that when we make judgments about the behaviour of people other than ourselves, we tend to overemphasize dispositional explanations at the expense of situational explanations.
-The fundamental attribution error can lead to problems for managers of poorly performing employees. It suggests that dispositional explanations for the poor performance will sometimes be made even when situational factors are the true cause.

Why does the fundamental attribution error occur?

For one thing, we often discount the strong effects that social roles can have on behaviour. We might see bankers as truly conservative people because we ignore the fact that their occupational role and their employer dictate that they act 16 17 conservatively. Second, many people whom we observe are seen in rather constrained, constant situations (at work or at school) that reduce our appreciation of how their behaviour may vary in other situations. Thus, we fail to realize that the observed behaviour is distinctive to a particular situation. That conservative banker might actually be a weekend skydiver!

Actor-Observer Effect

It is not surprising that actors and observers often view the causes for the actor's behaviour very differently. This difference in attributional perspectives is called the actor-observer effect . Specifically, while the observer might be busy committing the fundamental attribution error, the actor might be emphasizing the role of the situation in explaining his or her own behaviour. Thus, as actors, we are often particularly sensitive to those environmental events that led us to be late or absent. As observers of the same behaviour in others, we are more likely to invoke dispositional causes.
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Actor-Observer Effect examples

We see some of the most striking examples of this effect in cases of illegal behaviour, such as price fixing and the bribery of government officials. The perpetrators and those close to them often cite stiff competition or management pressure as causes for their ethical lapses. Observers see the perpetrators as immoral or unintelligent.
-Why are actors prone to attribute much of their own behaviour to situational causes? First, they might be more aware than observers of the constraints and advantages that the environment offered. At the same time, they are aware of their private thoughts, feelings, and intentions regarding the behaviour, all of which might be unknown to the observer. Thus, I might know that I sincerely wanted to get to the meeting on time, that I left home extra early, and that the accident that delayed me was truly unusual. My boss might be unaware of all of this information and figure that I am just unreliable.

Self-Serving Bias

It has probably already occurred to you that certain forms of attributions have the capacity to make us feel good or bad about ourselves. In fact, people have a tendency to take credit and responsibility for successful outcomes of their behaviour and to deny credit and responsibility for failures.
-suggests that people will explain the very same behaviour differently on the basis of events that happened after the behaviour occurred.
-Self-serving bias can reflect intentional self-promotion or excuse making.
-To be sure, when a student does very well on an exam, she is very likely to make a dispositional attribution. However, upon receiving a failing grade, the same student is much more likely to find situational causes to explain her grade!

Workforce diversity

refers to differences among employees or potential recruits in characteristics such as gender, race, age, religion, cultural background, physical ability, or sexual orientation. The interest in diversity stems from at least two broad facts. First, the workforce is becoming more diverse. Second, there is growing recognition that many organizations have not successfully managed workforce diversity.
-The labour pool is changing, and at the same time many organizations are seeking to recruit more representatively from this pool so that they employ people who reflect their customer base—an effort to better mirror their markets.

Valuing Diversity

These advantages include the potential for improved problem solving and creativity when diverse perspectives are brought to bear on an organizational problem, such as product or service quality. Advantages also include improved recruiting and marketing when the firm's human resources profile matches that of the labour pool and customer base
-here is also evidence that retail stores have higher customer satisfaction and productivity when their employees represent the ethnicity of their customers. Furthermore, a match between racial diversity in a store and racial diversity in the community is positively related to sales performance. In addition, organizations with more gender-diverse management teams have superior financial performance

Steretype threat

occurs when members of a social group (e.g., visible minorities or women) feel they might be judged or treated according to a stereotype and that their behaviour and/or performance will confirm the stereotype.
-There is also some evidence that workers are often pressured to cover up or downplay their membership in a particular group (e.g., racial, ethnic, religious, LGBTQ), and they comply by changing their appearance or minimizing their affiliation and association with their group and other members of it. This can have a negative effect on a person's work attitudes and behaviour. In fact, research indicates that both subtle and overt discrimination have a negative effect on employees' physical and psychological health and work-related outcomes.

race stereotypes issues

accepted to jobs less with identical resumes, underrepresented in leadership roles
-ethnic names are discriminated for interviews
-more barriers to career advancement
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gender stereotype issues

-under represetned in "male jobs" like managerial and admin jobs
-ceos have no women
-masculine qualities are preffered in jobs
-People perceive leaders as similar to men but not very similar to women
-Women were discriminated against for promotion to a branch manager's position. They were also discriminated against when they requested to attend a professional development conference. In addition, female supervisors were less likely than their male counterparts to receive support for their request that a problem employee be fired
-This finding is similar to others that show that gender stereotypes tend to favour women when they are being considered for "women's" jobs (such as secretary) or for "women's" tasks (such as supervising other women), but not for traditional male jobs.
-gender pay gap
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age stereotypes

Older workers are seen as having less capacity for performance. They tend to be viewed as less competent, adaptable, productive, creative, logical, and capable of performing under pressure than younger workers. In addition, older workers are seen as having lower performance and less potential for development. Compared with younger workers, they are considered more rigid and dogmatic and less adaptable to new corporate cultures. Not all stereotypes of older workers are negative, however. They tend to be perceived as more honest, dependable, and trustworthy
-Younger workers tend to be viewed as less loyal, inexperienced, unmotivated, immature, and selfish compared to older workers.
-Research has found that younger workers (ages 18-30) experienced the highest rates of age discrimination, followed by older workers (50 or older), and then middle-aged workers (ages 31- 49).Younger workers are more likely to be denied promotions, receive fewer opportunities for training and development, receive lower pay and benefits, have less autonomy and responsibility, and are more vulnerable to layoffs.

lgbtq stereotypes

-Another survey reported that 35 percent of gay men and 40 percent of lesbian respondents said they had experienced discrimination during their professional lives
-LGBTQ employees who do not feel safe to come out at work are up to 30 percent less productive, more likely to suffer from depression and stress, and more likely to quit.
-. LGBTQ employees who are not out at work are 40 percent less likely to trust their employers and 73 percent more likely to leave within three years compared to those who have come out at work.
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Managing Workforce Diversity

Select enough minority members to get them beyond token status. When this happens, the majority starts to look at individual accomplishments rather than group membership, because they can see variation in the behaviours of the minority.
-Develop an employment equity plan to ensure that members of designated groups are represented throughout the organization.
-Provide a flexible work environment that can accommodate the needs of all employees and fosters work-life balance and an inclusive workplace
-Encourage teamwork that brings minority and majority members together.
-Ensure that those making career decisions about employees have accurate information about them rather than having to rely on hearsay and second-hand opinion.
-Train people to be aware of stereotypes and to value diversity.

perceptions of trust

According to a recent survey, more than one-third (37 percent) of employees do not trust their immediate supervisor when it comes to making decisions with their best interest in mind. Other surveys have found that 47 percent of respondents agreed that a lack of trust is a problem in their organization, and 40 percent indicated that they do not believe what management says.
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trust

defined as a willingness to be vulnerable and to take risks with respect to the actions of another party.
-More specifically, "Trust is a psychological state comprising the intention to accept vulnerability based upon positive expectations of the intentions or behaviour of another." Trust perceptions toward management are based on three distinct perceptions: ability, benevolence, and integrity.
-Ability Define trust perceptions and perceived organizational support, and describe organizational support theory. refers to employee perceptions regarding management's competence and skills.
-Benevolence refers to the extent that employees perceive management as caring and concerned for their interests and willing to do good for them.
-Integrity refers to employee perceptions that management adheres to and behaves according to a set of values and principles that the employee finds acceptable. The combination of these three factors influences trust perceptions.