1) Gender Bias

Define gender bias?

The differential treatment/ representation of males or females based on stereotypes or beliefs rather than real difference.

Describe what is meant by universality in terms of gender bias?

When a theory is described as universal, it means it applies to all people, irrespective of gender and culture.

However, this also means that it needs to include real differences.

In relation to gender, this means developing theories that show the similarities AND differences between males and females, without devaluating either gender.

This means that research should be about discovering ‘value-free’ facts which are objectively true, but like everyone, psychology is often influenced by its cultural context.

Define androcentrism and give one example?

Theories that are centred around MEN.

• e.g: alpha bias

Define gynocentrism and give one example?

Theories that are centred around WOMEN.

• e.g: beta bias

Describe what alpha bias is and name two examples?

In the same way that alpha males exaggerate and show off.

• Alpha bias is when the differences between men and women are exaggerated.

This becomes an issue when research is based on men.

E.G: Freud’s psychosexual stages

E.G: evolutionary-biological theory of relationship formation

Describe alpha bias within Freud’s theory of the psychosexual stages?

During the phallic stage of development, both boys and girls develop desire for their parents.

• For boys, this leads to castration anxiety which is resolved when they identify with their fathers.

Freud believed young girls suffer from ‘penis envy’.

• He also said that girls with a lack of identification with their fathers would lead to a weaker superego.

Freud’s theory focused predominantly on men, despite many of his patients being female.

Ultimately, he viewed femininity as a failed form of masculinity.

Describe alpha bias within the social-biological theory of relationship formation?

It suggests that male infidelity is inevitable, and female maternity as inevitable, due to biological needs.

• Acting outside of their genetic ‘make-up’ becomes abnormal behaviour.

Describe what beta bias is and name an example?

In comparison to alpha bias, beta bias ignores or minimises the differences between the sexes.

• These theories often assume that the findings from males can apply equally to females.

Beta bias can sometimes have a positive effect, leading to further research.

E.G: Biological psychological research into the fight or flight response.

Describe beta bias in the biological psychological research into the fight or flight response?

Research has tended to focus on male animals due to hormone levels being easier to monitor.

• The first assumption is that these responses would be the same in humans, but also that this would affect men and women equally.

Describe an example of the positive impact of beta bias for females involving research?

TAYLOR ET AL:
Investigated whether there is a difference between men and women’s responses to stress.

• Found that women adopt a ‘tend and befriend’ response to stressful situations.

In this instance, the beta bias once acknowledged, led to further research and a positive change for women in psychology.

Describe the knock on effect of androcentrism?

Leads to female behaviour being misunderstood and pathologised.

• Taken as a psychological instability or disorder.

• Feminist commentators have been objected to the diagnostic category PMS on the grounds that it stereotypes and trivialises female experiences.

BRESCOLL AND UHLMAN:

Claims PMS is a social construct which medicalises female emotion, especially anger, by explaining it in hormonal terms.

• Male anger is often however, seen as a rational response to external pressures.

Evaluate the strengths of research into gender bias?

STRENGTH: FEMINIST PSYCHOLOGY

One way to reduce gender bias is to take a feminist approach, which attempts to restore the imbalance in both psychological theories and research.

• E.G: feminist psychology accepts that there are biological differences between males and females, but that socially determined stereotypes make a far greater contribution to perceived differences.

• Thus, they need to be consistently readdressed.

Feminist psychology argues that to restore the imbalance in both psychological theories and research, we could use evidence that women may be inferior.

EAGLY:

Claims that females are less effective leaders than males.

• However, the purpose of Eagly’s claim is to help researchers develop training programmes aimed at introducing more female leaders in the real world.

STRENGTH: EMPOWERING WOMEN

More contemporary psychologists have looked for ways to reduce gender bias, putting forward a number of solutions.

• e.g: some psychologists attempt to develop theories that emphasise the importance and value of women.

CORNWELL ET AL:

Noted that females are better at learning, as they are more attentive and organised.

Thus, emphasising the value and positive attributes of women.

As a result, this type of research helps to reduce or challenge gender stereotypes and so, gender bias.

Evaluate the limitations of research into gender bias?

LIMITATION: GENDER STEREOTYPES OFTEN GO UNCHALLENGED

The issues of gender bias often go unchallenged.

E.G: Darwin’s established theory of sexual selection suggests that women are selective in terms of male selection.

• These views have only been recently challenged by DNA evidence suggesting that women are equally as competitive to men, when the need arises.

This highlights the importance of continually challenging earlier gender research and reducing gender bias to ensure a valid picture of women is portrayed in contemporary studies.

LIMITATION: REASONS TO AVOID BETA BIAS RESEARCH

One reason for avoiding beta bias is the consequences it has on women.

• On the positive side, equal treatment under the law has allowed women greater access to educational and occupational opportunities.

HARE-MUSTIN AND MARACEK:

However, they point out that arguing for equality between men and women draws attention away from women’s needs and from differences in power dynamics between the two.

• In a society, where one group holds most of the power, seemingly neutral actions end benefiting the group with the power to begin with (men).

  • e.g: equal parental leave ignores the biological demands of pregnancy, childbirth and breastfeeding, and the special needs of women.

  • Therefore disadvantaging women.