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Experiments
Studies where researchers manipulate variables to test cause-effect relationships.
Causation
When one variable directly affects another.
Joint method of agreement and difference
A logic method to determine causation by comparing cases where an effect occurs and doesn't occur.
Ceiling effect
When scores are too high, limiting differences between groups.
Floor effect
When scores are too low, limiting differences between groups.
Control variable
A factor kept constant to prevent it from affecting results.
Confound
A variable that unintentionally influences the outcome, making it hard to determine true causation.
Third-variable problem
A hidden factor that affects both studied variables, creating a false correlation.
Directionality problem
Uncertainty about which variable causes the other in a correlation.
Independent variable
The factor manipulated by the researcher.
Dependent variable
The factor measured in response to changes in the independent variable.
Internal validity
The degree to which a study accurately establishes a cause-effect relationship.
Testing intact groups
Using pre-existing groups, which can introduce bias.
Maturation and history
Natural changes in participants over time that affect study outcomes.
Regression to the mean
Extreme scores tend to move closer to the average upon retesting.
External validity
The extent to which study results apply to real-world settings.
Demonstrations
Studies that show an effect without necessarily proving causation.
Correlational research
Studies that examine relationships between variables without manipulation.
Simpson's paradox
When trends appear in different groups but disappear or reverse when combined.
