PNB 2275 Practical set 2

Blood is a type of \__ tissue that is able to regenerate itself on a regular basis

connective

If you spin a blood sample in a centrifuge on top is __, which makes up about __% of blood.

Plasma; 55%

It is mainly consisting of water and also proteins and other dissolved solutes, such as urea, salts, and organic nutrients.

plasma

If you spin a blood sample in a centrifuge, the middle layer is a grey-white layer, called a __.

buffy coat

This layer contains platelets and various WBCs (leukocytes)

buffy coat

If you spin a blood sample in a centrifuge, the bottom layer consists of \__ and is about __% of the blood.

red blood cells (erythrocytes); 44%

Collectively, the \__ & \__ are called the "formed elements".

erythrocytes & the buffy coat

help initiate immune responses and defend the body against pathogens

WBCs

How much bigger or smaller are WBCs compared to RBCs?

They are about 1.5-3x larger than RBCs.

WBCs are/are not motile

ARE motile

WBCs are mostly found in the \__ rather than the __

body tissues rather than the blood stream

What are the 5 different types of WBCs

Neutrophils, Lymphocytes, Monocytes, Eosinophils, Basophils (Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas)

How do you view all of the components of blood?

by preparing a blood smear slide

What are the two major classes of leukocytes?

granulocytes & agranulocytes

Which leukocytes are granulocytes?

the phils! -\> neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils

Which leukocytes are agranulocytes?

A Little Monkey -\> lymphocytes & monocytes

When viewed under the microscope, granulocytes have visible microscopic \__ in the cytoplasm.

granules

\__ are the most abundant WBC type and their nuclei are __.

Neutrophils; multi-lobed

have red-pink granules in their cytoplasm and their nuclei are __.

Eosinophils; bi-lobed nuclei with two lobes connected by a strand

These make up about 2-4% of leukocytes, second most common.

Eosinophils

Eosinophilia (an increase in the number of eosinophils in the blood) is likely to come from a patient with __.

an allergic reaction or a parasitic infection

\__ are the least numerous type of leukocyte. They also have \__ nuclei & blue-violet __

Basophils; bi-lobed nuclei; granules

Agranulocytes do/do not have granules in their cytoplasm/

Technically they still have granules in their cytoplasm, but they are much smaller so they are often over-looked.

\__ have large, round nuclei

Lymphocytes

\__ have kidney-shaped nuclei

Monocytes

This disease is inherited and is caused by a single point mutation in the gene for the Hb beta chain.

Sickle cell anemia

Sickle cell anemia is inherited and is caused by a single \__ mutation in the gene for the Hb \__ chain, causing the cells to adopt a sickle shape and not be able to carry as much oxygen.

caused by a single POINT mutation in the gene for the Hb BETA chain

What is the point mutation that causes sickle cell anemia?

GAG -\> GUG, which is a valine amino acid, rather than a glutamic acid

a higher density of RBCs is characteristic of __

polycythemia

The elevated proportion of RBCs in polycythemia is result of either \__ or __

the result of either an increase in the number of RBCs or a decrease in blood plasma volume

Polycythemia can be a dangerous condition when the blood becomes too \__ and can result in \__ & __.

viscous; high blood pressure & clots

Primary polycythemia is a rare caused by __.

factors intrinsic to RBC precursors found in bone marrow (Hormones like erythropoietin can increase production of erythrocytes. Chronic hypoxia and steroid hormones such as testosterone can also contribute to polycythemia.)

Blood doping is an example of transfusional __

polycythemia

This is a widespread viral disease characterized by fever, sore throat, and fatigue.

Infectious mononucleosis

Infectious mononucleosis is most commonly caused by the \__ virus

Epstein-Barr

Infectious mononucleosis is characterized by atypical __

LYMPHOCYTES -\> • When the disease was first characterized, clinicians misidentified those atypical lymphocytes as monocytes and thus gave the disease the misleading name of mononucleosis.

Infectious mononucleosis' histological phenotype is reactive or a-typical \__ that are smaller/larger than regular lymphocytes with abnormal shaped __. Cells also have __.

Its histological phenotype is reactive or a-typical lymphocytes that are larger than regular lymphocytes with abnormal shaped nuclei. Cells also have "cytoplasmic skirting".

Leukemia is characterized by unregulated overproduction of __. Very large numbers of cells are released from \__ and found circulating in the blood.

immature leukocytes; bone marrow

Leukemia is defined by __

the types of cells involved

Myelogenous leukemia effects \__ in the bone marrow

myeloid cells

lymphocytic leukemia effects _

lymphocytes

a molecule that elicits the production of antibodies as part of the immune response (antibody generator)

Antigens

are what your body produces to fight off any cell that is not "marked" as yours

Antibodies

what is the shape of an antibody?

Y-shaped

The ABO blood types are based on the presence or absence of

two antigen variants that are expressed on the surface of RBCs - Antigen A and Antigen B

If only the A antigen is expressed on the surface of the RBC, then you are blood type __.

A

If neither A nor B antigen is expressed on the surface of the RBC, then you are blood type __.

O

If both A and B antigen is expressed on the surface of the RBC, then you are blood type __.

AB

If only the B antigen is expressed on the surface of the RBC, then you are blood type __.

B

Antigen A and B are genetically __, making it possible for an individual to express both types of antigen simultaneously on RBCs and they have blood type AB.

"codominant"

The immune system produces \__ proteins when a person is exposed to a foreign substance, like a protein on a bacterial cell wall.

antibody

What happens when your body is exposed to a pathogen?

Upon exposure to a pathogen's antigens, B lymphocytes will differentiate into plasma cells and make an antibody specific to that antigen.

Antibodies specific for the A-antigen are called __

Anti-A antibodies

Because antibodies are made for things your body considers foreign, individuals with blood type A will have \__ antibodies and vice versa.

Anti-B

As each blood cell will have multiple antigens on its surface, there are multiple antibody bonding sites. So that many RBCs can be connected via antibody binding and the resultant clumping of many RBCs together is called __.

hemagglutination

Eventually, hemagglutination will cause __.

hemolysis (which is the rupture of the RBCs)

When does hemagglutination and hemolysis occur?

When incompatible blood is transfused into a patient. Hemagglutination will causing hemolysis leads to cell contents and fragments being released into the blood, causing mass activation of the immune system, which can lead to shock, kidney failure, and ultimately death. Another subsequent effect of hemagglutination is that donor blood cells can block smaller blood vessels.

For Blood Type A:
(1) Antigens on RBC Surface?
(2) Anti-A or Anti-B Antibodies in plasma?
(3) Safe to Receive Blood from Types?

(1) Antigen A
(2) Anti-B antibodies
(3) Type A and O

For Blood Type B:
(1) Antigens on RBC Surface?
(2) Anti-A or Anti-B Antibodies in plasma?
(3) Safe to Receive Blood from Types?

(1) Antigen B
(2) Anti-A antibodies
(3) Type B and O

For Blood Type O:
(1) Antigens on RBC Surface?
(2) Anti-A or Anti-B Antibodies in plasma?
(3) Safe to Receive Blood from Types?

(1) None
(2) Anti-A AND Anti-B
(3) Type O only

For Blood Type AB:
(1) Antigens on RBC Surface?
(2) Anti-A or Anti-B Antibodies in plasma?
(3) Safe to Receive Blood from Types?

(1) Antigen A & B
(2) Neither
(3) Type A, B, O, AB

Which blood type is the universal donor?

O

Which blood type is the universal receiver?

AB

Every RBC is filled with millions of a red pigmented protein called __, which transports oxygen and carbon dioxide dissolved in the blood and gives the RBCs a characteristic bright red color.

Hemoglobin

Each Hb molecule consists of \__ polypeptide chains called __.

4; "globins"

What are the chains in Hb?

2 alpha chains
2 beta chains

found in each globin chain; a ring-shaped, non-protein molecule called a \__ with a divalent iron ion in the center that allows for oxygen binding and transport in the blood

heme group

Since we have \__ globins each with \__ heme groups, we can carry \__ oxygen molecules on one molecule of Hb.

Since we have 4 globins, each with 4 heme groups, we can carry 4 oxygen molecules on one molecule of Hb.

Use of the \__ is the technique that directly assess the Hb levels in the blood.

hemoglobinometer

What is the unit for the hemoglobinometer?

grams/100mLs (or gram% -\> Gm%)

Typical range of values for Hb from the hemoglobinometer?

13-18 gm% for men
11-16 gm% for women

The method we use to measure the amount or portion of RBCs is called

hematocrit

This technique makes use of a centrifuge to separate whole blood into its liquid part and cellular components based on density differences.

hematocrit

the fraction of whole blood volume that consists of RBCs

hematocrit

What are the units for hematocrit?

%

How do you measure hematocrit?

Measure and divide RBC volume by total blood volume and express the number as a percentage

Normal HCT value is around ?

45%

This value is slightly higher in adult males than in adult females, due to the \__ level difference found between men and women

HCT; testosterone

Hb and hematocrit are related because they each measure aspects of RBC levels. If the measure of either one is lower than normal -\> __.

anemia

The hematocrit gives you an idea of the __, but it doesn't tell you __.

The hematocrit gives you an idea of the proportion of RBCs in the whole blood, but it doesn't tell you the level of Hb in the RBCs

Are hematocrit and Hb levels always related?

NO -\> you may have a normal hematocrit, but if your Hb level is low, you have anemia. Both measurements are needed to get a full idea of what is going on in your blood.

Equation to calculate HCT?

HCT \= [packed RBC/Total Blood] x 100 (both values measured in mm)

when an individual is dehydrated, the plasma level __, while the RBC level __. So, you would expect to see a \__ hematocrit value

when an individual is dehydrated, the plasma level decreases, while the RBC level remains the same. So, you would expect to see a higher hematocrit value

With polycythemia, your HCT would be lower/higher than normal.

HIGHER

The most obvious structure on the anterior side of the heart is the _

pulmonary trunk

exits the right ventricle to branch into the right and left pulmonary arteries that carry blood to the lungs

pulmonary trunk

Separates the right and left ventricles and houses some of the coronary blood vessels

Interventricular sulcus

The apex of the heart (anatomically) points towards the

LEFT

The external, anterior part of each atrium forms a flap-like structure called the

auricle

Blood flows into the heart through the __, which enter the right atrium.

inferior vena cava and superior vena cava

From the right atrium, blood flow to the right ventricle and out the __.

pulmonary trunk to the lungs

From the lungs, the blood returns to the heart through the __, which exit from the lungs into the left atrium

pulmonary veins

From the left atrium blood flows into the left ventricle and then out the _

aorta

a large vessel that lies just posterior to the pulmonary trunk

aorta

In humans, the aorta has \__ branches, but in the sheep heart there are only __.

Human: 3
Sheep: 2

The first thing you notice on the interior of the atria's auricles is that the anterior walls are lined by __

rigged muscles, which are the "pectinate muscles"

The upper and lower chambers of the heart are separated by __

atrioventricular valves

On the right side of the heart, the AV valve has \__ cusps so it is the __.

3 cusps so it is the "Tricuspid Valve"

On the left side of the heart, the valve only has \__ cusps, so it is the __.

On the left side of the heart, the valve only has 2 cusps, so it is the "Bicuspid Valve". (AKA the Mitral Valve).

are attached to the walls of the ventricles at the papillary muscles

Chordae tendinea