International Politics Key Concepts: Cooperation, Bargaining, and Conflict

Collaboration Problem

When actors gain from working together but have incentives to defect.

Bargaining

Interaction where one actor's gain is another's loss; involves dividing something of value.

Reversion Outcome

The outcome that occurs when no bargain is reached.

Interests

What actors want and their preferences among possible outcomes of action.

Actors in International Politics

States, politicians, firms, international organizations, NGOs.

Interactions

The choices of two or more actors combine to produce outcomes.

Cooperation

An interaction where two or more actors adopt decisions that make at least one better off without making others worse off.

Coordination Problem

When actors benefit from making the same choices and have no incentive to defect.

Iteration

Repeated interactions with the same partners that make defection less likely.

Linkage

Linking cooperation on one issue to cooperation on another.

Bargaining Power

Ability to improve one's reversion outcome or worsen the other's.

Coercion

Threatening punishment if demands aren't met (e.g., sanctions, force).

Outside Options

Alternatives to reaching a deal.

Agenda Setting

Actions taken before or during bargaining to make the reversion outcome costlier for the other side.

Institutions

Sets of rules (formal or informal) that structure interactions in specific ways.

Formal Institutions

Rules embodied in international law/organizations (e.g., UN, WTO).

Informal Institutions

Norms, customs, unwritten practices.

Crisis Bargaining

Bargaining under the threat of war.

Incomplete Information

When states lack information about the other's capabilities or resolve.

Capabilities

A state's military and economic power.

Resolve

Willingness to endure costs to achieve goals.

Brinkmanship

Risky actions to signal resolve by threatening disaster.

Tying Hands

Making threats or actions that make backing down costly.

Sinking Costs

Costly steps that signal resolve (e.g., mobilizing troops).

Commitment Problem

Inability to credibly commit to a future deal.

Preventive War

War fought to prevent an adversary from growing stronger.

Preemptive War

War fought because of fear the opponent will strike first.

Indivisible Issues

Issues that cannot be divided without destroying their value.

Diversionary Theory of War

Leaders start conflicts to distract from domestic problems or gain support.

Rally Effect

Short-term increase in popular support for leaders during crises or war.

Special Interest Groups

Groups with particular policy goals (e.g., military, economic, ethnic lobbies).

Bureaucracy

Government organizations that implement policy.

Democratic Peace Theory

Observation that mature democracies rarely go to war with each other.

Accountability Theory

Democratic leaders avoid costly wars because they are accountable to voters.

Cultural/Normative Theory

Democracies share a culture of peaceful dispute resolution.

Alliance

A written agreement between states for military support, neutrality, or cooperation.

Defensive Alliance

Parties agree to defend each other if attacked.

Offensive Alliance

States agree to jointly attack another state.

Neutrality Pact

States agree to remain neutral in a conflict.

Balancing

Aligning against the strongest threat.

Bandwagoning

Aligning with a threatening power for protection or spoils.

Entrapment

Risk that an alliance partner's aggression drags an ally into conflict.

Abandonment

Risk an ally will not uphold alliance commitments.

Collective Security Organization (CSO)

Broad-based institutions promoting peace and security (e.g., UN, AU, OAS).

Peace Enforcement

UN or CSO operations imposing peace during conflict.

Peacekeeping

Monitoring and supporting the implementation of a peace agreement.

P5

The five permanent members of the UN Security Council: USA, UK, France, Russia, China.

Civil War

Armed conflict between a government and a rebel group within a state.

Separatist Conflict

Rebels seek to create an independent state from an existing one.

Irredentist Conflict

Rebels seek to join another state.

Commitment Problems in Civil Wars

Difficulty trusting either side to uphold deals, often due to power shifts.

Terrorism

Use or threat of violence against civilians by nonstate actors for political goals.

Coercion (Terrorism)

Using fear to impose costs and induce policy change.

Provocation

Attacking to provoke government overreaction and increase support for the group.

Spoiling

Sabotaging peace deals by undermining trust between moderates and the government.

Outbidding

Competing groups use terrorism to appear more committed than rivals.

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