Memory

Developmental Psychology

Study of physical, cognitive & social change throughout the life span

Continuity

Nature of developmental change is a gradual, continuous process 

(e.g. a starfish grows overtime but maintains its form)

Quantitative

Change is about growth & maturation (i.e. getting bigger, taller, larger)

Discontinuity

Nature of developmental change is abrupt shifts in behaviour that suddenly emerge & are nothing like previous/future stages 

(e.g. a butterfly goes through stages of caterpillar, cocoon, butterfly)

Qualitative

Change is about the description of behaviour (stage theorists believe in this)

Source of Development

The causes of developmental change are a combination of nature (genetics) and nurture (environment)

Plasticity

The ability to change the course of development

Two Components: 

1-change through a deliberate intervention 2-change during critical periods

Consider: injuries, accidents, can behaviour still be manipulated?

Individual Differences

People are different & have stable unique characteristics

Active/Passive

Are children active contributors to their development (Piaget) or are they recipients of others’ choices & their environment

Cross Sectional Studies

Compare people of different ages at the same point in time

Adv: fast & easily accessible participant samples 

Disadv: cohort effects

Cohort Effects

Different age groups may have experiences that are particular to their generation that will impact their development (can’t compare kids who grew up during the pandemic & those who haven’t)

Longitudinal Studies

Follow & retest the same people over time

Adv: studying one group for accurate representation of human development 

Disadv: practice effects, attrition, time consuming, expensive, cross-generational difference

Practice Effects

Testing people over & over may cause them to memorize answers instead of actually demonstrate their development

Attrition

Loss of participants over long periods of time, difficulty to maintain interest, avoid death, moving, etc. - use of compensation strategies can be costly

Cross- generational difference

This one group of people may not be representative of all people everywhere in the world, at different points in time

Prenatal Development

Consists of 3 qualitative periods (germinal, embryonic, fetal) - separate from trimesters - trimester 1 is the first two periods & beginning of the fetal period

Germinal Period (zygote)

Conception - 2 Weeks (Implantation)

Conception

Sperm penetrates the ovum in the fallopian tube

Zygote

Single celled organism that is the fertilized egg

Cleavage

Zygote division occurs 36 hours after fertilization & divides multiple times

Implantation

10-14 days after conception organism implants into uterus lining

Embryonic Period (embryo)

2-8 Weeks

most vulnerable time in gestation, development of CNS, internal organs & mother’s pregnancy structures (e.g. placenta, umbilical cord

Organogenesis

Formation of organs

Fetal Period (fetus)

9 Weeks - Birth (38 weeks)

organs start functioning, muscles develop, growth in terms of size

Time of Viability

Researchers claim fetal period ends at 28 weeks as fetus can survive on their own, modern intervention (e.g. ICUs) can help fetus live at 24/26 weeks

Teratogens

Agents that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development causing harm, abnormalities or even death (e.g. alcohol, drugs)

Time of exposure is critical as different structures, functions can be impacted

Thalidomide

A drug given to pregnant women to manage nausea but caused babies to be born without/ abnormal limbs

Synaptogenesis

Formation of neuronal synapses, occurs from birth - 2 months

Axons & dendrites have been sprouting from week 15 as a fetus

Use It Or Lose It

Neural connections become stronger as they are used or prune away if not

Brain Growth & Development

By 6 months it is double its original weight, by 5 years it is 90% of its adult size

Growth is due to neural networks developmental & myelin sheath creation

Hindbrain 🠆 Midbrain 🠆Forebrain 

Reflexes develop quickly & first, then associations, memory

Human brain develops into mid-20s

Physical Development

Motor skills happen during a range of time for infants, physical skills are interrelated with cognitive, social developmental skills

Cephalocaudal

Development occurs from head to foot

Proximodistal

Development occurs from body’s center to periphery

Maturation

Physical, biological changes (e.g. development of the cerebellum, ossification of bones creates readiness to walk; baby can’t walk before that no matter what the environment tries to do)

Adolescence

Transition from childhood to adulthood (12-20 years), prevalent in the west, biological maturation is present but social independence is not attained yet

Primary Sex Characteristics

Involved in reproduction e.g. sex organs

Landmarks of Adolescence

Males: production of sperm (14 years), Females: menstruation (12-13 years)

Age of onset can be influenced by factors like diet, exercise, etc.

Life Span

The maximum age possible for members of a given species (humans: 120 yrs)

Cellular-Clock Theory

Hayflick Limit: telomeres at the end of chromosomes will be lost every time the cell divides to replicate

Wear-and-Tear Theory

Repeated use & abuse will wear out the body over time

Life Expectancy

The number of years that an average member of a species is expected to live (humans: 83 yrs) - changes based on gender, country, pandemics etc

Jean Piaget

Father of cognitive development, stage theorist

Schema

A concept or framework of mental concepts that organizes & interprets info

Assimilation

The process of interpreting new information in terms of existing schemas

Accommodation

The process of modifying existing schemas to incorporate new information

Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

Children uniformly go through 4 stages that are independent from each other

Not applicable globally as performance depends on knowledge of certain objects, language & experiences that are biased towards formal education

Delays disappear with the use of culturally appropriate tasks

Sensorimotor Stage (0-2)

Infant explores the world through direct sensory & motor contact. Object permanence & separation anxiety develop during this stage

Object Permanence

Awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

Occurs at 8 months

Preoperational Stage (2-6)

Child uses symbols (words, images) to present objects but does not reason logically. They have the ability to pretend. Child is egocentric

Egocentrism

Difficulty taking another’s point of view

Piaget’s Mountain Task

Objects placed on 3 mountains can only be viewed from the front. Child has the opportunity to look at all the perspectives, then when stationary are asked about a different perspective but they can only mention what they currently see because they think everyone’s POV is the same as theirs

Theory of Mind

People’s ideas about their own & other’s mental states, develops at 3-4 years

Impaired in individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders

False Belief Test

Testing theory of mind 1. Sally Ann test or 2. Smarties test

Sally Ann Test

Sally finds the ball in the bin then leaves the room, Ann moves the ball from the bin to the basket, when Sally comes back where will she look for the ball? 

Pass test: she will look in the bin - separates their & Sally’s knowledge 

Fail test: she will look in the basket - inability to separate knowledge

Smarties Test

Child guesses there are smarties in the box as the label indicates, then pencils are revealed. When asked what she originally thought or what another child would think when presented with the box she or the hypothetical child would say “pencils” even though they have no reason to. She can’t separate what she knows from what she previously knew/what others know

Concrete Operational Stage (7-12)

Child can think logically about concrete objects (thus, they can add & subtract). Child understand conservation.

Conservation

Properties such as mass, volume & number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects (e.g. pouring same amount of liquid into different cups)

Formal Operational Stage (12+)

Adolescents can reason abstractly & think in hypothetical terms. 

Not everyone reaches this stage as it does not consider cultural differences

Hypothetical- Deductive Reasoning

Coming up with theories & higher thinking (e.g. Premises: A. all poodles are dogs, B. all dogs are animals Conclusion: C. all poodles are animals)

Age-Related Declines

With age physical & cognitive abilities decline (e.g. At 65 years vision shrinks as only ⅓ of light enters the retina in comparison to a 20 year old)

Sensory Acuity

Ability to attend to, notice, identify things at the sensory level or a slow down in neuronal processing. This related to memory declines

Parenting Styles

Combination of demandingness & responsiveness lead to 4 parenting styles

Authoritative

High Demandingness - High Responsiveness

Golden standard, clear expectations & are sensitive, & warm

Child shows best outcomes of achievement, self-esteem, social confidence

Authoritarian

High Demandingness - Low Responsiveness

Impose many rules, no negotiation or talking

Child has lower social skills & self-esteem

Permissive

Low Demandingness - High Responsiveness

Don’t set limits or set punishments, but listen to their kids views & are sensitive

Child becomes aggressive & immature due to lack of restraints

Negligent

Low Demandingness - Low Responsiveness

Uninvolved parents

Child has poor academic & social outcomes

Attachment

Strong emotional tie with another person ~ measured by quality not by presence/absence of attachment ~ predicts future relationships

Need for Attachment

Freud: to fulfill biological drives (e.g. attach to mom to be fed)

Harlow: contact comfort (e.g. desire for security

1. Secure Attachment

The baby is secure when the parent is present, distressed by separation & delighted by reunion (60% of infants)

Consequences: fosters intimacy - believes in love, satisfying relationships, accepts & gives care, least likely to be divorced 

Insecure Attachment

Categorized into avoidant, resistant & disorganized

2. Avoidant/ Anxious Attachment

Avoids mom throughout experiment, rarely cries by separation, no reaction with reunion, these infants experience internally physiological levels of distress

Consequences: starves intimacy - fear of intimacy, uncomfortable being close, conflicts: men are less warm : do not verbalize issue

3. Resistant Anxious Ambivalent

Most upset at separation, very clingy

Consequences: smothers intimacy - feels that others don’t want to become as close as they want, obsessive preoccupation - self sacrificing care, conflicts: women are the most upset : don’t offer support to partner

4. Disorganized /Disoriented

Wide variety of behaviours e.g. freeze, dazed, no emotion during mom’s presence

Consequences of Attachment Styles

Internal expectations about availability of caregiver to provide comfort during distress creates a model for future relationships

Moral Reasoning

The way people think about & try to solve moral dilemmas 

Categorized into levels by Koghleberg (stage theorist)

Preconventional Level

Morality judged in terms of rewards & punishment

Conventional Level

Morality judged in terms of social order & approval (cultures that are collectivist {success of the group is important} tend to be here)

Post Conventional Level

Morality judged in terms of abstract principles, like equality & justice

Erkinson’s 8 Stages

This stage theorist proposed that personality developed through a series of crisis & its resolution/lack of it determine personality through the life course

1. Trust vs Mistrust

Infancy: set stage for lifelong expectations, will needs be met by significant others?

2. Autonomy vs Shame & Doub

Toddlerhood: asserting control over themselves

3. Initiative vs Guilt

Early childhood: becomes responsible for actions, curious about the world, initiates exploration & activities

4. Industry vs Inferiority

Middle childhood: focuses on school activities & based on feedback they receive will lead them to continue in the industry path or feel inferior

5. Identity vs Role Confusion

Adolescence: identity crises, different roles are explored & identity develops

6. Intimacy vs Isolation

Young adulthood: conflict about forming intimate, loving relationships with other people

7. Generativity vs Stagnation

Middle adulthood: strives to create & nurture, often through parenting, contributing to community or some other positive change

8. Integrity vs Despair

Late adulthood: contemplate accomplishments & can develop integrity if seeing oneself as leading a successful life

Self-Concept

All of our thoughts & feelings about ourselves, emerges at 15-18 months

Temperament

Individual's innate disposition or behavioural style & characteristic response (4)

a. Easy

40% of children - pumped mood, relaxed, agreeable, follow a routine

b. Difficult

10% - moody, easily frustrated, most reactive, don’t adhere to a schedule

c. Slow to warm up

15% - mild responses, shy, watchful & need time to adjust to new people/situations

Unclassifiable

35% of children do not fit in a classification of temperament

Identity Crisis

Adolecent’s struggle to establish a personal identity, or self-concept

Factors include groups of people that they spend time with

Adolescence & Mental Health

Stereotypical images of rebellion, risk-taking, mood swings, conflict with parents, but distress is exaggerated for teens as it is true for all stages of life

Self-Esteem

Highest in children, declines in adolescence, gradually increases in adulthood, then decreases again with old age

5 Stages of Death

By Elisabeth Kubler-Ross [not super accurate but opened up work in this field]

1. Denial, 2. Anger, 3. Bargain, 4. Depression, 5. Acceptance

Hospice

Dying with dignity - making the most of the time you have left, no matter

Movement

what death course you have