NSG 532 Unit 1

Physiology

Study of bodily functions in a healthy organism, intermolecular interactions and communications within an organism and with its internal/external environment, mutual relationships between an organism and its microbiome, homeostatic processes

Is physiology focused more on organic compounds or inorganic compounds?

organic

Homeostasis

variables are regulated so that internal conditions (including microbiome composition and diversity) remain stable and relatively constant

What characteristics do all living beings share?

a sources of life information (DNA/ RNA), cellular organelles to process information into structural and functional proteins, cellular organelles to generate energy

Genotype

the actual information printed in the DNA

Phenotype

how the information is physically expressed

What is the beginning of the life energy process?

the sun provides solar energy

What do plants do with inorganic compounds CO2, H2O, and sunlight?

combine to produce organic compounds and oxygen using photosynthesis

What is the byproduct of the use of oxygen to breakdown organic compounds?

ATP - aerobic respiration

Autotrophs

can convert inorganic compounds into organic compounds - only plants able to do this (self feeders)

Heterotrophs

must consume organic compounds such as plants or animals that eat plants to create ATP (consumers)

What are the four most important biomolecules?

DNA, RNA, Proteins, ATP

Molecular process of life information

life is the ability to express living information into structural and functional proteins, ability to generate living energy for constructing structures and carrying out functions

Aerobic respiration

oxygen increases efficiency of ATP

Reactants: glucose and oxygen

Products: ATP, water, CO2

Location: cytoplasm (glycolysis) and mitochondria

Stages: glycolysis (anaerobic), Krebs cycle, oxidative phosphorylation

ATP produces- 38 ATP

Anaerobic respiration

Reactants: glucose

Products: ATP and lactic acid (animals); or ATP, ethanol, and CO2 (yeast)

Location: cytoplasm

Stages: glycolysis, fermentation

ATP produces: 2 ATP

How many ATP does glycolysis create?

2 ATP

What organelle does the Krebs cycle take place in?

Mitochondria

How many ATP does the Krebs cycle produce?

2 ATP

How many ATP does the Electron Transport Chain produce?

34 ATP

How many ATP total are produced with the breakdown of organic compounds in aerobic cellular respiration?

38 ATP

What element is needed for the electron transport chain?

Oxygen

What purpose does oxygen serve in aerobic cellular respiration?

oxygen increases the efficiency of ATP production

How many ATP does anaerobic cellular respiration create? What are other byproducts?

2 ATP; byproducts are 2 molecules of lactate

What type of cells use lactic acid fermentation anaerobic respiration

Some bacteria, liver cells, muscle cells

What are two types of anaerobic cellular respiration

Lactic acid fermentation and alcoholic fermentation

What type of organisms use alcoholic fermentation?

yeast and some bacteria

Moving from ATP to ADP to AMP is creating or using energy?

using energy

Moving from AMP to ADP to ATP is creating or using energy?

creating energy

Dephosphorylation

the removal of a phosphate group from a molecule of ATP, which uses energy

Phosphorylation

is the addition of a phosphate group from a molecule of ATP, this is storage/creation of energy

Which enzyme is responsible for phosphorylation?

ATP synthase

Which enzyme is responsible for dephosphorylation?

ATPase

What is NAD important for?

carries hydrogen to create energy, called NADH when carrying hydrogen

What is FAD important for?

carrying hydrogen for energy creation; called FADH when carrying hydrogen

Exergonic

Any reaction that produces ATP; generates ATP, the ATP level of reactant is higher than ATP level of products, ATP stored in reactants is released during the process.

Endergonic

A reaction that utilizes/consumes ATP; the ATP level of reactants is lower than the ATP level of products, free ATP is utilized during the process

Metabolic

combination of exergonic reaction and endergonic reaction, catabolic reactions are exergonic and anabolic reactions are endergonic

Composition of microbiome

bacteria + archaea + viruses + yeast + fungi + protozoa, items that go into account in the microbiome

Dysbiosis

abnormal alterations in composition/diversity of the microbiome, could lead to higher incidence of inflammations and cancers (lifestyle and diet, genetic changes, misuse of antibiotics, infections and inflammations, aging and race, immune system disorders, chemotherapy and radiotherapy)

Cellular organisms

all living things are made of cells, cells are structural and functional units of life, all cells arise from pre-existing cells. They have sources of life (DNA and RNA), machinery to express life information, and machinery to generate energy.

Acellular organisms

such as viruses, have only one source of life information (either DNA or RNA), they lack machinery to express life information, they lack machinery to generate energy. They must have a host (obligate intracellular pathogen)

Prokaryote

No nuclear membrane, one circular DNA floats freely, no membrane-bound organelles, no mitochondria, divide by binary fission, aerobic and anaerobic, unicellular, have plasmid (ex: bacteria and archaea)

Eukaryote

have nuclear membrane (nucleus), more linear DNA held in the nucleus, have membrane-bound organelles, have mitochondria, divide by mitosis and meiosis, mostly aerobic, mostly multicellular, no plasmid. (ex: animals, humans, plants, fungi, parasites, and yeasts)

Stem cells

found in multicellular eukaryotes, are undifferentiated cells that can differentiate into specialized cells, can divide through mitosis to produce more stem cells.

Self-renewal of stem cells

the ability to go through numerous cycles of cell division while maintaining the undifferentiated state

Potency of stem cells

the capacity to differentiate into specialized cell types (totipotent, pluripotent, multipotent, unipotent, to specialized cells)

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

site of protein synthesis and initiation site for post-translational modifications. Partially processed proteins are packed into protein transport vesicles. Partially modified proteins complete their modifications in Golgi

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

site of lipids, phospholipids, steroids and cholesterol biosynthesis. Forming transport vesicles which migrate to the golgi apparatus. Site of detoxification of drugs. Site of regulation of Ca+ concentration in myocytes.

Golgi apparatus

receives transport vesicles from RER and SER via CIS face. Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins, carbohydrates and lipids before they are sent to their destination via TRANS face.

Mitochondria

In matrix- NADH (from glycolysis and Krebs cycle). Hydrogen electrons pass through the electron transport chain in the inner membrane to oxygen. Oxygen is reduced to water. Hydrogen transport releases energy that moves hydrogen protons from the matrix to the intermembrane space. The gradient created by highly concentrated H+ drives H+ back through ATP synthase. ATP synthase becomes active and synthesizes ATP from ADP.

Mitochondrial DNA

only a small portion of the Eukaryotic DNA (~3%), involved in ATP biosynthesis, inherited solely from the mother.

Endocytosis

is an ATP dependent and endosome-mediated process that internalizes extracellular and PM macromolecules all the way to lysosomes for degradation, or to be recycled back to the plasma membrane.

Pinocytosis

fluid particles endocytosis

Phagocytosis

solid particles endocytosis

What occurs in the inner membrane of the mitochondria

electron transport chain and ATP synthase

What occurs in the intermembrane space of the mitochondria?

H+ gradients

What occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria?

Krebs cycle

What are four common exergonic reactions?

carbohydrates into glucose, proteins into amino acids, lipids into fatty acids, nucleic acids into nucleotides

Are exergonic reactions catabolic or anabolic?

catabolic

What is the ratio of host cells compared to microbiome cells?

10% host cells, 90% microbiome cells

Where is the majority of the microbiome found in humans?

the GI tract

What can dysbiosis lead to?

higher incidence of inflammation and cancers

What are the components of cell theory?

all living things are made of cells, cells are structural and functional units of life, all cells arise only from pre-existing cells

Since viruses have a source of life information, why are they not considered cellular?

only contain information, have no machinery to process information or machinery to generate energy

What is meant by obligate intracellular pathogen?

come into body/host to utilize machinery in order to process information and replicate — cannot survive otherwise, must live inside a cell to become a pathogen

Symmetric division

1 stem cell (undifferentiated) splits into 2 stem cells (both undifferentiated)

Asymmetric division

1 stem cell (undifferentiated) splits into 1 progenitor cell (more specific but not yet differentiated) and 1 stem cell (undifferentiated)

Progenitor divison

1 progenitor cell (more specific, not differentiated) splits into 2 progenitor cells

Terminal division

1 progenitor cell becomes 1 fully differentiated cell

What do totipotent cells have the capacity to differentiate to?

totipotent cells can differentiate to all cell types including placenta

What can pluripotent cells differentiate into?

Pluripotent cells can become nearly any type of cell except placenta cells

Between totipotent cells and pluripotent cells, which has the ability to construct a complete, viable organism?

totipotent cell - can create an embryo

What can multipotent stem cells differentiate to?

Only a few cell types, one example is bone marrow hematopoeitic multipotent stem cells - can become RBCs or WBCs

Why is unipotent stem cell still considered a stem cell?

have the property of self renewal - which distinguishes from non-stem cells. Ex: egg and sperm unipotent stem cells.

Most important function of the rough endoplasmic reticulum?

protein synthesis and initiation site for post translational modifications

What face of the golgi apparatus receives transport vesicle?

the CIS face

What face of the golgi apparatus releases secretory vesicles?

the TRANS face

Endocytosis

internalization of extracellular and cell membrane macromolecules, brings particles inside of the cell to the lysosomes to either be degraded or recycled.

What is endocytosis dependent on and how is it mediated?

ATP-dependent, Endosome- mediated

How are endosomes classified?

sorting, early, late, and recycling

Sorting endosome

sort whether particles will be sent to lysosome for digestion/destruction or sent to the recycling endosome

Early endosome

the endocytose particles and bring them further into the cell to become late endosomes

Where are lysozymes synthesized?

rough endoplasmic reticulum

Process of lysozymes becoming lysosomes

synthesized in the RER, transferred and released from the golgi apparatus - become early endosome, early endosomes mature into late endosomes, particles delivered to the lysosome to undergo phagocytosis and autophagy

Exocytosis

the opposite of endocytosis, breakdown of vesicles opens and releases contents outside of the cell

microfilaments

are two twisted strands of contractile actin protein polymers

microtubules

are alpha-tubulin and beta-tubulin protein polymers

centrioles

are microtubule units of centrosome located in the cytoplasm close to the nucleus, form mitotic spindle to move chromosomes during mitosis

flagellum

locomotion and sensing the environment

motile cilium

are found in the lining of the trachea, where they sweep mucus and dirt out of the lungs, the beating of cilia in the fallopian tubes moves the ovum from the ovary to the uterus

non-motile cilium

are found on nearly every cell in the body, function as an “antenna” for chemical sensation, communication and signal transduction, cell growth.

intermediate filaments

made up of a diverse family of keratin proteins coiled together

functions of cytoskeleton

intracellular vesicular transport, intracellular movement of organelles - communication, cellular locomotion, morphology and structural integrity, anchor nucleus to ER, triggering immune responses and sensing pathogens, conversion of the chemical energy in ATP to mechanical work is initiated by cytoskeletal Dynein proteins, the beating of eukarytoic cilia and flagella is initiated by Dynein proteins.

Cell adhesion molecules

are transmembrane proteins involved in binding cells with each other and with extracellular matrix

cadherin

hemophilic, cell to cell interaction (two of the same cells), Ca 2+ dependent

Selectin

heterophili, cell to cell interaction (two different types of cells), Ca2+ dependent

Integrins

cell to cell matrix interaction, Ca2+ independent

Connexins

gap junction proteins, are transmembrane proteins that assemble to form gap junctions, allow different molecules, ions and electrical impulses to pass through a regulated gate between cells.

Cell nucleus

stores DNA, and coordinates the cellular activities, the double nuclear membrane and matrix are connected to the RER, traffic of macromolecules between the nucleus and cytoplasm occurs through nuclear pore complexes, condensed DNA (chromatin) is found in the nucleoplasm

Cell membrane

vital for cellular morphology, essential for cellular protection, crucial for cellular transport, important for cell to cell extracellular matrix adhesion, critical for intercellular and intracellular interactions/communications, obligatory for expression communicating receptors. Has a cell wall (structural support, protection from osmotic lysis) and cytoplasmic membrane (protection, transport and cell to cell communication)