Cell Biology and Physiology Review

A comprehensive set of flashcards covering key concepts in cell biology and physiology based on the lecture notes.

What structure holds two sister chromatids together?

The centromere.

What are the phases of mitosis in the proper sequence?

Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase.

If a cell is inhibited during the S phase of its cycle, it will not reproduce due to lack of what?

Lack of DNA replication.

What is apoptosis?

Programmed cell death.

Define metastasis.

The spread of cancer cells to new areas of the body.

The mitotic spindle is composed of what, which originate from where?

Microtubules, which originate from the centrosome.

Why is an oncogene more likely to lead to cancer than a proto-oncogene?

An oncogene is mutated and promotes uncontrolled cell division.

What protein is required for chromatin to compact correctly within the nucleus?

Histones.

During which stage of the cell cycle does the spindle disappear?

Telophase.

What happens in interphase, S, M, G1, and G2 stages?

Interphase is the phase of the cell cycle where the cell prepares for division; S phase is where DNA is replicated; G1 is the first gap phase before DNA synthesis; G2 is the second gap phase after DNA synthesis and before mitosis.

Define translocation.

The movement of a segment of DNA from one chromosome to another.

What is the major difference between meiosis I and meiosis II?

Meiosis I is a reductional division reducing chromosome number, while meiosis II is similar to mitosis.

What happens in metaphase I?

Homologous chromosomes line up at the cell's equatorial plane.

Define homologous pair.

A pair of chromosomes, one from each parent, that have the same size, shape, and genetic content.

What is crossing over?

The exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during meiosis.

What does the term tetrad refer to?

A group of four chromatids formed during meiosis.

Define nondisjunction.

The failure of chromosomes to separate properly during cell division.

Which pair of chromosomes on a karyotype would show you the sex of a baby?

The 23rd pair (X and Y chromosomes).

During which stage of meiosis do chromosomes line up at the spindle equator individually?

Metaphase II.

What are Barr bodies and how can they be identified?

Inactive X chromosomes in female cells, identifiable as a small structure in the nucleus.

What occurs once during meiosis?

DNA replication.

What is the name of the human syndrome which is a monosomy?

Turner syndrome.

What is transcription?

The process of copying a segment of DNA into RNA.

What are Chargaff's rules?

Adenine pairs with thymine and cytosine pairs with guanine in DNA.

DNA is shaped like a twisted ladder. The rungs of the ladder are composed of __, while the sides are composed of __.

Nitrogenous bases; sugar and phosphate.

What does semiconservative mean in the context of DNA replication?

Each new DNA strand contains one original strand and one newly synthesized strand.

What are the three steps required for DNA replication and the enzymes involved?

Unwinding the DNA (helicase), synthesizing new DNA strands (DNA polymerase), and sealing breaks (ligase).

What is the base found in DNA but not in RNA?

Thymine.

What would happen if introns are not removed from primary mRNA?

It would likely be non-functional and not translated into a protein.

What are the three stages of translation?

Initiation, elongation, and termination.

What does DNA replication make? A(n) copy of the DNA strand, while transcription makes a(n) copy.

Duplicate; RNA.

Which molecule transfers amino acids present in the cytoplasm to the ribosomes?

tRNA (transfer RNA).

What is the sequence of mRNA that results from transcribing a DNA template strand CCTAGCTA?

GGAUCGAU.

What is the difference between transcription activators and transcription factors?

Activators enhance transcription, while factors are proteins that regulate transcription.

What are introns and exons?

Introns are non-coding segments of RNA, while exons are coding segments that remain in mRNA.

What are the levels of biological organization?

Cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism.

What type of epithelium best describes skin?

Stratified squamous epithelium.

What is the distinctive characteristic of connective tissue?

It has a matrix that supports and binds other tissues.

What carry signals to the cell body of a neuron, while __ carry signals away from the cell body?

Dendrites; axons.

What are ligaments made up of?

Dense connective tissue.

Which body system is needed for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide?

Respiratory system.

Which cell type supports and nourishes the neurons?

Neuroglia (or glial cells).

What is the similarity between skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle?

Both are striated muscle tissue.

What is the function of the pulmonary circuit in a closed circulatory system?

To carry deoxygenated blood to the lungs and return oxygenated blood to the heart.

What is a heart murmur?

An unusual sound during a heartbeat, often indicating a heart problem.

What are systole and diastole?

Systole is the contraction of the heart; diastole is the relaxation phase.

What is the blood flow through the pulmonary arteries?

It carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs.

How is osmotic pressure and buffering capacity of the blood maintained?

Through proteins, electrolytes, and hemoglobin's ability to bind carbon dioxide.

What is the role of iron in blood?

Iron is crucial for oxygen transport as a component of hemoglobin.

What do the two large lymphatic ducts deliver lymph to?

The subclavian veins.

What heart problems are associated with the formation of plaques?

Atherosclerosis.

What is the order of events in a cardiac cycle?

Atrial contraction, ventricular contraction, relaxation phases.

Which blood vessel in the systemic circulatory system will connect the digestive tract and the liver?

The hepatic portal vein.

What are the blood vessels to the lungs and back collectively known as?

Pulmonary circulation.

What is the function of the lymphatic system?

It maintains fluid balance, absorbs fats from the digestive tract, and provides immunity.

Which part collects venous blood from below the heart?

Inferior vena cava.

What are coronary bypass operations and stent insertion procedures used to treat?

Coronary artery disease.

In organisms that lack a circulatory system, what is the most common method of exchanging nutrients?

Diffusion.

What substance always leaves the tissue fluid and enters the capillary?

Water.

What is the first step in the formation of a blood clot?

Vascular spasm (constriction of blood vessels).

What is the definition of nutrient?

A substance that provides nourishment essential for growth and the maintenance of life.

Bleeding gums and easy bruising of the skin can be symptoms of a deficiency of which vitamin?

Vitamin C.

What are 'essential' nutrients?

Nutrients that must be obtained through diet because the body cannot synthesize them.

What is the importance of fiber in the diet?

Fiber aids in digestion and helps maintain a healthy weight.

Which mineral is typically overconsumed by Americans?

Sodium.

What are the similarities between anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa?

Both are eating disorders characterized by unhealthy eating habits and body image issues.

What are the health risks associated with diabetes?

Heart disease, kidney damage, nerve damage, and potential eye problems.

How do you calculate calorie consumption?

By tracking food intake and its caloric value.

During water intoxication (hyponatremia), which electrolytes can become out of balance?

Sodium.

Which eating disorder is characterized by someone thinking their body is underdeveloped?

Anorexia nervosa.

Where does starch digestion begin?

In the mouth.

Where does protein digestion begin?

In the stomach.

What is the role of villi in the digestion process?

Villi increase the surface area for absorption in the intestine.

What is the function of the pancreas?

To produce digestive enzymes and hormones like insulin.

Which sense requires the stimulation of chemoreceptors?

Taste and smell.

Where is the location of the spiral organ?

In the cochlea of the inner ear.

What is gravitational equilibrium?

The state of balance of the body's position in response to gravity.

What is the correct sequence that light must pass through in order to reach the photoreceptors of the human eye?

Cornea, aqueous humor, lens, vitreous humor, retina.

What is the name of the contractile units of skeletal muscle?

Sarcomeres.

In a sarcomere, what are thick filaments composed of?

Myosin, while thin filaments are composed of actin.

What type of skeleton is present in humans?

Endoskeleton.

What structure is responsible for rotational equilibrium?

Semicircular canals.

Where are the ossicles located?

In the middle ear.