PSYC 101

Basic study guide for PSYC 101 final.

Psychological Science

The study, through research, of mind, brain, and behavior.

Critical thinking

Systematically questioning and evaluating information using well-supported evidence.

Brain training

Tools developed to improve mental processes, but do not enhance general intellectual ability.

Noncritical thinking

Can lead to erroneous conclusions, such as assuming correlation implies causation.

Dunning Kruger Effect

The tendency for people to overestimate their abilities due to lack of self-awareness.

Pillars of psychology

Clinical, Cognitive, Cultural, Developmental, Health, Industrial/Organizational, Relationships, Social-Personality.

Advances in psychology

Brain imaging, Genetics, Immunology and other peripheral systems.

Cognitive Psychology

The study of mental functions such as intelligence, thinking, language, memory, and decision making.

Best practices for learning

Distributed practice, Retrieval-based learning, Elaborative interrogation, Self-explanation, Interleaved practice.

Scientific method

A systematic approach to research involving posing research questions, forming hypotheses, designing and conducting studies, analyzing data, and reporting results.

Theory

A model of interconnected ideas or concepts that explain observations and predict outcomes.

Hypothesis

A specific testable prediction about cause and effect that is narrower than a theory.

Variable

Something that is measured or manipulated in a research study.

Operational definition

A definition that qualifies and quantifies a variable so that it can be understood objectively.

Descriptive research

Research methods that involve observing behavior to describe it objectively and systematically.

Correlational studies

Research methods that describe and predict how variables are naturally related in the real world.

Experiment

A research method that tests causal hypotheses by manipulating and measuring variables.

Random assignment

Placing research participants into experimental conditions in such a way that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any level of the independent variable.

Construct validity

The extent to which variables measure what they are supposed to measure.

Inferential statistics

Procedures that enable researchers to decide whether differences between groups are probably due to chance or reflect true differences in the populations being compared.

Neuron

Nerve cell powered by electrical impulses and communicates with other nerve cells through chemical signals.

Reception

The phase where information is received by the neuron.

Integration

The stage where the neuron processes information and decides whether or not to send a signal.

Transmission

The phase where the neuron transmits a signal.

Sensory neurons

Neurons that detect information from the physical world and pass it to the brain.

Motor neurons

Neurons that direct muscles to contract or relax, producing movement.

Interneurons

Neurons that act as relay stations between sensory and motor neurons.

Action potential

An electrical signal that passes along the axon and causes the release of chemicals from the terminal buttons.

Resting membrane potential

The electrical charge of a neuron when it is not active.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical substances that transmit signals from one neuron to another.

Presynaptic neuron

The neuron that sends the chemical signal.

Postsynaptic neuron

The neuron that receives the chemical signal.

Split brain

A condition that occurs when the corpus callosum is surgically cut, and the two hemispheres of the brain do not receive information directly from each other.

Genetics

The transmission of characteristics from parents to offspring through genes.

Dominant gene

A gene that is expressed in the offspring whenever it is present.

Recessive gene

A gene that is expressed only when it is matched with a similar gene from the other parent.

Genotype

The genetic constitution of an organism, determined at the moment of conception.

Phenotype

Observable physical characteristics resulting from both genetic and environmental influences.

Consciousness

One's moment-to-moment subjective experience of the world.

Qualia

Individual and subjective experiences of consciousness.

Change blindness

A failure to notice large changes in one's environment.

Attention

The gateway to conscious awareness.

Endogenous attention

Attention that is directed voluntarily.

Exogenous attention

Attention that is directed involuntarily by a stimulus.

Priming

A facilitation in the response to a stimulus due to recent experience with that stimulus or a related stimulus.

Altered consciousness

A person's subjective sense of consciousness varies naturally over the course of the day.

Meditation

A mental procedure that focuses attention on an external object or on a sense of awareness.

Flow

A state of complete immersion and engagement in an activity, eliminating distractions and losing track of time.

Escapist behaviors

Activities such as sports, music, and screen activities that distract people from their problems and help them avoid feeling bad about themselves.

Hypnosis

A social interaction during which a person, responding to suggestions, experiences changes in memory, perception, and/or voluntary action.

Socio-cognitive theory

The theory that hypnotized subjects are role-playing and acting how they believe hypnotized subjects are supposed to act.

Neo-dissociation theory

The theory that hypnosis is a trancelike state where conscious awareness is separated from other aspects of consciousness.

Hypnotic analgesia

The use of hypnosis to treat immediate and chronic pain.

Sleep

A natural altered state of consciousness that varies throughout the day and is essential for rest, repair, and learning.

Circadian rhythms

Biological patterns that occur at regular intervals as a function of the time of day.

Stimulants

Drugs that increase behavioral and mental activity and activate the sympathetic nervous system.

Depressants

Drugs that reduce behavioral and mental activity by depressing the central nervous system.

Opioids

Drugs that relieve pain by binding with endorphin receptors.

Hallucinogens

Drugs that produce alterations in cognition, mood, and perception.

Sensation

The detection of external stimuli and the transmission of this information to the brain.

Perception

The processing, organization, and interpretation of sensory signals.

Bottom-up processing

Perception based on the physical features of the stimulus.

Top-down processing

Perception shaped by knowledge, expectations, or past experiences.

Transduction

The process by which sensory stimuli are converted to signals the brain can interpret.

Sensory adaptation

A decrease in sensitivity to a constant level of stimulation.

Absolute threshold

The minimum intensity of stimulation required to experience a sensation.

Difference threshold

The minimum amount of change required for a person to detect a difference between two stimuli.

Signal detection theory

A theory of perception that states the detection of a stimulus requires a judgment and is not an all-or-nothing process.

Trichromatic theory

The theory that color perception is based on three types of cones sensitive to different wavelengths of light.

Gestalt principles of perceptual organization

Principles that help determine the meaning of visual input by organizing it into a coherent whole