AP Psych Unit 1

APA

American Psychological Association; sets research standards, ethics, and citation guidelines in psychology.

Behaviorism

Psychology approach focused on observable behavior and environmental influences, excluding internal mental states.

Bimodal distribution

A data set with two distinct peaks or modes, showing two common values.

Biopsychosocial

An integrated approach considering biological, psychological, and social factors in behavior and mental processes.

Case study

In-depth analysis of one individual or group, often used for rare or unusual conditions.

Central tendency

Statistical measure identifying the center of a data set: mean, median, or mode.

Cognitive

Psychological perspective focused on mental processes like perception, memory, language, and problem-solving.

Confederates

Actors in a study who * participants but are part of the research team.

Confidentiality

Ethical principle requiring researchers to keep participants' data private and secure.

Confirmation bias

Tendency to seek or interpret information in ways that confirm existing beliefs.

Confounding variables

Uncontrolled variables that influence the dependent variable, interfering with causal conclusions.

Control group

Participants not exposed to the independent variable, used for comparison with the experimental group.

Convenience sampling

Selecting participants based on availability, not randomization, increasing bias risk.

Correlation

Statistical relationship between two variables, ranging from -1 to +1.

Correlation coefficient

Numerical value showing direction and strength of a correlation (r); close to ±1 is strong.

Correlation vs. Causation

Correlation shows a relationship but does not prove one variable causes another.

Cross-sectional study

Compares different age or demographic groups at one point in time.

Cultural norms

Shared expectations, values, or behaviors considered typical within a culture.

Debriefing

Post-study explanation given to participants, revealing the study's purpose and correcting deception.

Deception

Intentionally misleading participants to avoid bias, allowed only if justified and followed by debriefing.

Dependent variables

The measured outcome in an experiment, affected by changes in the independent variable.

Directionality problem

In correlation, it's unclear which variable causes the other to change.

Double-blind study

Neither participants nor researchers know who is in the experimental or control group, reducing bias.

Effect sizes

Quantifies the magnitude of a relationship or treatment effect in a study.

Empirical evidence

Data gathered through observation or experimentation, not based on theory or opinion.

Evolutionary

Perspective emphasizing natural selection and adaptive behaviors shaped by evolutionary pressures.

Experimental group

Participants exposed to the independent variable in an experiment.

Experimental method

Research design manipulating an independent variable to examine causal effects on a dependent variable.

Experimenter bias

Researcher's expectations subtly influence participants or interpretation of results.

Falsifiable

A hypothesis must be testable and capable of being proven false.

Generalizing

Applying research findings from a sample to a broader population.

Hawthorne Effect

Participants change behavior because they know they're being observed.

Hindsight bias

Tendency to see events as more predictable after they've occurred ('I knew it all along').

Humanistic

Perspective emphasizing free will, personal growth, and self-actualization.

Hypothesis

Testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

Independent variables

Variable manipulated by the researcher to observe its effect on the dependent variable.

Informed assent

Minors' agreement to participate, with parental or guardian informed consent.

Informed consent

Participant agreement to join a study after being fully informed of procedures and risks.

Institutional review

Review by an Institutional Review Board (IRB) ensuring research meets ethical standards.

Likert scales

Survey format asking participants to rate agreement on a numerical scale (e.g., 1-5).

Longitudinal study

Follows the same individuals over a long period to observe developmental changes.

Mean

Arithmetic average of a data set; sensitive to outliers.

Median

Middle value in an ordered data set; resistant to skew.

Meta-analysis

Statistical technique combining results of multiple studies to identify overall trends.

Mode

Most frequently occurring value in a data set.

Naturalistic observation

Observing behavior in natural environments without interference.

Negative correlation

As one variable increases, the other decreases.

Negative skew

Data distribution with a tail on the left; mean < median.

Normal curve

Symmetrical bell-shaped distribution with most scores near the mean.

Operational definitions

Clear, measurable definitions of research variables for replication and validity.

Overconfidence

Tendency to overestimate knowledge or accuracy of judgments.

Peer review

Evaluation of research by experts before publication to ensure quality and credibility.

Percentile rank

Indicates the percentage of scores below a particular score in a distribution.

Placebo

Inactive substance or treatment used to control for participants' expectations.

Placebo effect

Improvement due to belief in treatment, not the treatment itself.

Population

Entire group a researcher wants to study or generalize results to.

Positive correlation

Both variables increase or decrease together.

Positive skew

Data distribution with a tail on the right; mean > median.

Protection from harm

Ethical obligation to prevent physical or psychological harm to participants.

Psychoanalytic

Perspective focusing on unconscious drives, childhood experiences, and inner conflicts (Freud).

Qualitative research/measures

Non-numeric data describing characteristics or themes (e.g., interviews).

Quantitative research/measures

Numeric data used for statistical analysis (e.g., surveys, experiments).

Random assignment

Placing participants into groups by chance to minimize preexisting differences.

Random sampling

Selecting participants randomly from a population to ensure representation.

Range

Difference between highest and lowest values in a data set.

Regression toward the mean

Extreme scores tend to return to average upon retesting.

Replication

Repeating a study to confirm findings and ensure reliability.

Representation of participants

Ensuring sample demographics reflect the target population.

Representative sample

A sample mirroring the demographics of the population being studied.

Sample

Subset of the population used to conduct research.

Scatterplot

Graph showing the relationship between two variables using plotted data points.

Single-blind study

Participants are unaware of their group assignment; researchers know.

Social desirability bias

Tendency to respond in ways seen as favorable or acceptable by others.

Standard deviation

Measure of variability showing how scores differ from the mean.

Statistical significance

Likelihood that a result is not due to chance (usually p < .05).

Structured interviews

Pre-set, standardized questions asked in the same order to each participant.

Third variable problem

A separate, unmeasured factor causes changes in both correlated variables.

Validity

The extent to which a test or study measures what it claims to measure.

Variation

Degree of spread in a data set; includes range and standard deviation.

Acetylcholine

Neurotransmitter involved in muscle contraction, memory, and learning; low levels linked to Alzheimer's disease.

Action potential

Electrical impulse that travels down an axon when a neuron fires, triggered after the threshold is reached.

Adoption studies

Research comparing adopted children to biological and adoptive parents to separate genetic and environmental influences.

Adrenaline

Hormone and neurotransmitter (also called epinephrine) released by adrenal glands during stress; increases heart rate and energy.

Agonists

Drugs or chemicals that mimic or enhance the action of a neurotransmitter by binding to its receptor.

All-or-nothing principle

A neuron either fires completely or not at all; intensity is not dependent on the strength of the stimulus.

Amygdala

Part of the limbic system; processes emotions like fear and aggression, and forms emotional memories.

Antagonists

Drugs or chemicals that block the action of a neurotransmitter by occupying its receptor site.

Aphasia (Broca's and Wernicke's)

Language disorders; Broca's affects speech production (frontal lobe), Wernicke's affects comprehension (temporal lobe).

Association areas

Areas of the cerebral cortex not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; integrate and interpret information.

Autonomic nervous system

Subdivision of the peripheral nervous system; controls involuntary functions like heart rate, digestion, and respiration.

Axons

Long neuron fibers that carry electrical impulses away from the soma toward other neurons or muscles.

Brain stem

Oldest brain region; includes medulla and pons, controls basic life functions like heartbeat and breathing.

Broca's area

Region in the left frontal lobe; responsible for producing coherent speech.

Central nervous system (CNS)

Composed of the brain and spinal cord; processes information and directs responses.

Cerebellum

Located at the back of the brain; coordinates voluntary movement, posture, and balance.

Cerebral cortex

Outer layer of the brain; responsible for higher-order thinking, sensory processing, and voluntary movement.

Contralateral hemispheric organization

Each brain hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body (e.g., left brain controls right side).

Corpus callosum

Large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres, allowing communication between them.

CAT (CT) scan

Imaging technique that uses X-rays to create detailed cross-sectional images of brain structure.

Dendrites

Branch-like structures of a neuron that receive messages from other neurons.