Imperialism Rise in Nationalism • During the French and Industrial Revolution, nationalism continued to inspire nations to increase their political and economic power. • Nationalism became the ideal force in the political, economic, and cultural life in the world, becoming the first universal ideology-organizing all people into a nation state. Nationalism Defined • The strong belief that the interest of a particular nation-state is of primary importance. o Nation-State – a state where the vast majority shares the same culture and is conscious of it. It is an ideal in which cultural boundaries match up with political ones. • As an ideology, it is based on the idea that the individual’s loyalty and devotion to the nation-state surpass other individual/group interests. • Exalting one nation’s belief above all others and placing primary emphasis on promotion of its culture and interests, excluding the interests of others. Changing the World through a Nationalistic Vision • The French Revolution significantly changed the political world and how countries govern. • The Industrial Revolution significantly changed the economic world. • The Age of Imperialism (1870-1914) dramatically changed the political, economic, and social world. What is Imperialism? • Imperialism- The policy of extending the rule of authority of an empire or nation over foreign countries, or of acquiring and holding colonies and dependencies. Power and influence are done through diplomacy or military force. Reasons for Imperialism • There are 5 main motives for empires to seek to expand their rule over other countries or territories: 1. Exploratory • Imperial nations wanted to explore territory unknown to them. • The main purpose for this exploration of new lands was for resource acquisition, medical or scientific research. o Charles Darwin • Other reasons: o Cartography (map making) o Adventure 2. Ethnocentric • Europeans acted on the concept of ethnocentrism o Ethnocentrism- the belief that one race or nation is superior to others. • Ethnocentrism developed out of Charles Darwin’s “survival of the fittest” theory. Philosophers used the theory to explain why there were superior races and inferior races. o This became known as Social Darwinism. • Most imperial nations believed that their cultural values or beliefs were superior to other nations or groups. • Believed imperial conquest would bring successful culture to inferior people. 3. Religious • Imperial expansion promoted a religious movement of people setting out to convert new members of conquered territories. • With the belief that Christianity was superior, missionaries believed it was their duty to spread Christianity to the world. • Christian missionaries established churches, and in doing so, they spread Western culture values as well. • Typically, missionaries spread the imperial nation's language through education and religious interactions. 4. Political • Patriotism and Nationalism helped spur our imperial growth, thus creating competition against other supremacies. • It was a matter of national pride, respect, and security. • Furthermore, European rivalry spurred nations for imperial conquest. Since land equaled power, the more land a country could acquire the more prestige they could wield across the globe. • Empires wanted strategic territory to ensure access for their navies and armies around the world. • The empire believed they must expand, thus they needed to be defended. 5. Economic • With the Industrial Revolution taking place during the same time, governments and private companies contributed to find ways to maximize profits. • Imperialized countries provided European factories and markets with natural resources (old and new) to manufacture products. • Trading posts were strategically placed around imperialized countries to maximize and increase profits. o Such places as the Suez Canal in Egypt which was controlled by the British provided strategic choke hold over many European powers. o Imperial powers competed over the best potential locations for resources, markets, and trade. History of Imperialism • Ancient Imperialism 600 BCE-500 CE o Roman Empire, Ancient China, Greek Empire, Persian Empire, Babylonian Empire. • Middle Age Imperialism (Age of Colonialism-1400-1800s) o Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, Netherlands (Dutch), Russia. • Age of Imperialism 1870-1914 o Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Japan, United States, Ottoman Empire, Russia. • Current Imperialism...? o U.S. Military intervention (i.e. Middle East) o Russia’s Invasion of Ukraine. Imperialism Colonialism • Refers to political or economic control, either legally or illegally. • Refers to where one nation assumes control over the other. • Creating an empire, expanding into neighboring regions and expanding the dominance far outside its borders. • Where a country conquers and rules over other regions for exploiting resources from the conquered country for the conqueror's benefit. • Foreign government controls/governs a territory without significant settlement. • Foreign government controls/governs the territory from within the land being colonized. • Little to no new settlement established on fresh territory. • Movement to settle to fresh territory. Age of Colonialism WHEN? • Started around the late 1400s and ended around the late 1700s/early 1800s. WHY? • Primary Reason: European countries, wished to find a direct trade route to Asia (China & India) and the East Indies. o Quicker and relatively more effective than land routes over Asia. • Secondary Reason: Empire expansion (land power) WHO? • Countries involved: Great Britain, France, Spain, the Dutch & Portugal. • Individuals’ knowns as Mercantilists believed that maintaining imperialized territory and colonizing the region could serve as a source of wealth, while personal motives by rulers, explorers, and missionaries could therefore promote their own agenda. o This agenda being “Glory, God and Gold”. Mercantilism • Mercantilism was a popular and main economic system for many European nations during the 16th to 18th centuries. • The main goal was to increase a nation’s wealth by promoting government rule of a nation’s economy for the purpose of enhancing state power at the expense of rival national power. • It was the economic counterpart of political absolutism. Why did mercantilists want colonies? • Mercantilists believed that a country must have an excess of exports over imports. • By colonizing territory, it provided the nation with indispensable wealth of precious raw materials. • Therefore, the claimed territory served as a market and supplier of raw materials for the mother country. Which, in time, provided an excess of exports for the nation and thus created wealth. o Development of Trading Companies to support this economic system. Hudson Bay Company – (1670). Controlled primarily North America. o Dutch East Indie Trading Company (1682) o East Indian Trading Company (1600) o Royal African Trade Company (1672) WHERE? • European nations begun to colonize the America, India and the East Indies to create a direct trade route. • Great Britain was the leading power in India, Australia and North America, South Africa. • Spain colonized central and South America. • French held Louisiana, coastal land of Africa and French Guinea. • The Dutch built an empire in the East Indies. • The Portuguese was able to take control of present-day Brazil and the southern tip of South America and Japan. Age of Colonialism • As countries started to imperialize these regions, eventually the concept of colonization took hold: • This is what makes the Age of Colonialism extremely different! End of Colonialism • By 1800, colonialism became less popular • Why? o Revolutions (Spain, France & American) o The Napoleonic Wars o Struggle for nationalism and democracy. o Exhausted all money and energy to supervise their colonies. Waiting to wake again • Imperialism would stay quiet for close to 50 years before Great Britain and France’s economies revitalized. • The outbreak of the Industrial Revolution only encouraged and revitalized European nations to begin their conquest for new territory and resources. Age of Imperialism THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA 1870-1914 Conditions Prior to Imperialism of Africa  European interest in exploiting Africa was minimal.  Their economic interests & profit in Africa primarily came through coastal trade that took place during the 1500-1700s.  The slave trade became the main source of European profit.  Furthermore, disease, political instability, lack of transportation and unpredictable climate all discouraged Europeans from seeking territory. Slave Trade & the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyages  Forced labor was not uncommon during the 13-17th Centuries. Africans and Europeans had been trading goods and people across the Mediteranea for centuries.  This all changed from 1526 to 1867, as a new system of slavery was introduced that became highly “commercialized, racialized and inherited”  By 1690, the America and West Indies saw approximately 30,000 African people shipped from Africa. A century later, that number grew to 85,000 people per year.  By 1867, approximately 12.5 million people (about twice the population of Arizona) left Africa in a slave ship. What Changed? 1. End of the Slave Trade- Left a need for trade between Europe and Africa. 2. Innovation in technology- The steam engine and iron hulled boats allowed Europe 3. Discovery of new raw materials- Explorers located vast raw materials and resources and this only spurred imperialism with Europe in the wake of the Industrial Revolution. 4. Politics- Unification of Germany and Italy left little room to expand in Europe. Germany and Italy both needed raw materials to “catch up” with Britain and France so they looked to Africa. The Scramble for Africa  The scramble started in 1870.  Although some coastal land had previously been acquired before 1870, the need for territory quickly accelerated as European countries looked t get deeper into Africa.  Within 20 years, nearly all continents were placed under imperialistic rule. Who was Involved?  Great Britain  France  Germany  Italy  Portugal  Belgium  Spain (kind) Violent Affairs  Violence broke out multiple times when European nations looked to claim the same territory.  Germ Chancellor. Otto van Bismarck. Attempted to avert the possibility of violence against the European powers.  In 1884, Bismarck organized a conference in Berlin for the European nations. The Berlin Conference (1884-85)  The conference looked to set ground rules for future annexation of African territory by European Nations.  Annexation is the forcible acquisition and assertion of legal title over one state’s territory by another state, usually following military occupation of the territory.  From a distant perspective, it looked like it would reduce tensions among European nations and avert war.  At the heart of the meeting, these European countries negotiated their claims to African territory, made it official and then mapped their regions.  Furthermore, the leaders agreed to allow free trade among imperialized territory and some homework for negotiating future European claims in Africa was established. Further Path  After the conference, european powers continued to expand their claims in Africa so that by 1900. 90% of the African territory had been claimed. A Turn towards Colonization?  Upon the imperialization of African territory, European nations and little interest in African land unless it produced economic wealth.  Therefore, European governments put little effort and expertise into these imperialized regions.  In most cases, this emat a form of indirect rule. Thus, governing the natin without sufficient settlement and government from within the mother country. Some Exceptions  There were some exemptions through in Africa as colonization was a necessary for some regions i n Africa.  Some regions where diamonds and gold were present. Government looked to protectorate the regions and establish rule and settlement in the regions.  Protectorates: A state controlled and protected by another state for defense against aggression and other law violations. Would  Some examples include South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Congo. Conclusion  Although it may appear that the Berlin Conference averted war amid the African Scramble, imperialism eventually brought the world into worldwide conflict.  With the continued desire to create an empire by European nations. World War 1 would break out which can be linked to this quest at imperialism.

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Studied by 11 people

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OIA1004 URINARY SYSTEM I

Overview of the Gastrointestinal System

Basic Anatomy of the GIT Tract

The gastrointestinal (GI) tract, also known as the alimentary canal, is a continuous muscular tube extending from the mouth to the anus, approximately 5-7 meters in length.

It includes several key organs: mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and rectum.

Accessory digestive organs include the salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas, which play crucial roles in digestion and absorption.

The GI tract is divided into upper and lower sections, with the upper section including the mouth, esophagus, and stomach, and the lower section including the small and large intestines.

The GI tract is lined with mucosa, which aids in digestion and absorption, and is supported by layers of muscle and connective tissue.

Functions of the Digestive System

The digestive system performs six basic processes: ingestion, secretion, mixing and propulsion, digestion (mechanical and chemical), absorption, and defecation.

Ingestion involves taking food into the GI tract, primarily through the mouth.

Secretion refers to the release of digestive juices, including water, acids, buffers, and enzymes, into the GI tract to aid in digestion.

Mixing and propulsion involve the churning and movement of food through the GI tract, facilitated by peristalsis and segmentation.

Digestion includes both mechanical processes (chewing, mixing) and chemical processes (enzyme action on food).

Absorption is the process of transferring digested nutrients from the GI tract into the bloodstream or lymphatic system, primarily occurring in the small intestine.

Detailed Processes in Digestion

Mechanical and Chemical Digestion

Mechanical digestion involves the physical breakdown of food into smaller pieces, which prepares it for chemical digestion.

Chewing (mastication) in the mouth is the primary mechanical digestion process, aided by the teeth and tongue.

Chemical digestion involves enzymatic breakdown of food into smaller molecules, such as carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, facilitating absorption.

Salivary amylase, an enzyme in saliva, begins the chemical digestion of carbohydrates in the mouth.

The stomach further processes food through churning and the action of gastric juices, which contain hydrochloric acid and digestive enzymes.

The small intestine is the main site for chemical digestion and absorption, where enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the liver play critical roles.

Absorption in the Small Intestine

The small intestine is divided into three parts: duodenum, jejunum, and ileum, with the jejunum being the primary site for nutrient absorption.

Absorption occurs through the intestinal walls, which are lined with villi and microvilli to increase surface area.

Nutrients absorbed include amino acids, simple sugars, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals, which enter the bloodstream or lymphatic system.

The process of absorption is facilitated by various transport mechanisms, including passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and active transport.

The efficiency of absorption can be affected by factors such as the presence of digestive enzymes, the health of the intestinal lining, and the overall digestive process.

Disorders such as celiac disease or Crohn's disease can impair absorption, leading to malnutrition.

Accessory Organs of Digestion

Salivary Glands and Their Functions

The salivary glands include three pairs: parotid, submandibular, and sublingual, each contributing to saliva production.

Saliva is composed of 99.5% water and 0.5% electrolytes, enzymes, and antibacterial compounds, which aid in digestion and oral health.

Salivary amylase begins the breakdown of starches in the mouth, while mucin lubricates food for easier swallowing.

The secretion of saliva is controlled by the autonomic nervous system, with parasympathetic stimulation increasing saliva production and sympathetic stimulation decreasing it.

Saliva also plays a role in taste perception and maintaining oral hygiene by washing away food particles and bacteria.

Disorders affecting salivary glands can lead to dry mouth (xerostomia) and difficulty in swallowing.

The Role of the Pancreas and Liver

The pancreas produces digestive enzymes (e.g., lipase, proteases, amylase) and bicarbonate to neutralize stomach acid in the small intestine.

The liver produces bile, which is stored in the gallbladder and released into the small intestine to emulsify fats, aiding in their digestion and absorption.

Both organs are essential for the proper functioning of the digestive system, with the pancreas playing a key role in chemical digestion and the liver in metabolic regulation.

The liver also processes nutrients absorbed from the small intestine, converting them into usable forms or storing them for later use.

Disorders of the pancreas (e.g., pancreatitis) or liver (e.g., cirrhosis) can significantly impact digestion and overall health.

The interplay between these organs is crucial for maintaining homeostasis and efficient nutrient utilization.

Monosaccharides and Digestion

Key Types of Monosaccharides

Glucose: A primary energy source for cells, absorbed directly into the bloodstream.

Fructose: Found in fruits, absorbed via facilitated diffusion, and metabolized in the liver.

Lactose: A disaccharide composed of glucose and galactose, requires lactase for digestion.

Digestive Enzymes and Their Functions

Lingual Lipase: Secreted by the tongue, begins the breakdown of triglycerides in the mouth, activated in the acidic environment of the stomach.

Gastric Juice: Contains hydrochloric acid (HCl) and enzymes like pepsin, crucial for protein digestion.

Pharynx and Esophagus

Structure and Function of the Pharynx

Divisions: Nasopharynx (respiration only), Oropharynx (digestion and respiration), Laryngopharynx (digestion and respiration).

Peristalsis: Muscular contractions that propel food from the pharynx to the esophagus.

Anatomy of the Esophagus

Structure: A collapsible muscular tube that connects the pharynx to the stomach, located posterior to the trachea.

Sphincters: Upper esophageal sphincter (UES) prevents food from entering the esophagus; lower esophageal sphincter (LES) prevents reflux of stomach contents.

Stomach Anatomy and Physiology

Structure of the Stomach

Regions: Cardia, Fundus, Body, Pyloric part, each with specific functions in digestion.

Histology: Composed of four layers, including a mucosal layer with gastric glands that secrete digestive juices.

Functions of the Stomach

Mixing Chamber: Combines food with gastric juices to form chyme, a semi-liquid substance.

Chemical Digestion: Pepsinogen is activated to pepsin, which digests proteins; HCl aids in digestion and kills microbes.

Pancreas and Liver Functions

Anatomy of the Pancreas

Structure: Composed of head, body, and tail; contains both exocrine and endocrine functions.

Exocrine Function: Secretes pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes into the duodenum.

Composition and Function of Pancreatic Juice

Sodium Bicarbonate: Buffers acidic gastric juice, creating an optimal pH for enzyme activity in the small intestine.

Digestive Enzymes: Includes amylase (starch digestion), trypsin (protein digestion), and lipase (fat digestion).

Summary of Digestive Processes

Mechanical and Chemical Digestion

Mechanical Digestion: Involves peristaltic movements in the stomach to mix food with gastric juices.

Chemical Digestion: Enzymatic breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats begins in the stomach and continues in the small intestine.

Regulation of Digestive Secretions

HCl Secretion: Regulated by ACh, gastrin, and histamine; essential for activating digestive enzymes and maintaining pH.

Hormonal Control: Gastrin stimulates gastric motility and secretion of gastric juices.

Hepatic Anatomy and Functions

Hepatic Sinusoids

Hepatic sinusoids are specialized blood capillaries located between rows of hepatocytes, facilitating the exchange of substances between blood and liver cells.

They receive oxygenated blood from the hepatic artery and deoxygenated, nutrient-rich blood from the hepatic portal vein, playing a crucial role in liver function.

The sinusoids converge to deliver blood into a central vein, which then drains into the hepatic veins and ultimately into the inferior vena cava, ensuring efficient blood flow.

Stellate reticuloendothelial (Kupffer) cells, which are fixed phagocytes, reside in the sinusoids and are essential for immune response and the clearance of pathogens.

The unique structure of hepatic sinusoids allows for the efficient exchange of nutrients, waste products, and immune cells, highlighting their importance in liver physiology.

Liver Functions

The liver performs several critical functions, including excretion, metabolism, synthesis, storage, and detoxification.

Hepatocytes secrete bile, a yellow or olive-green liquid with a pH of 7.6 to 8.6, which is essential for digestion and excretion of waste products.

Bile consists mainly of water, bile salts (which aid in emulsification), cholesterol, lecithin, bile pigments (bilirubin), and ions, contributing to the digestion of fats and the coloration of feces.

The liver regulates glucose homeostasis through processes like glycogenolysis (breakdown of glycogen) and gluconeogenesis (production of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources).

It synthesizes important biomolecules such as lipoproteins, cholesterol, plasma proteins (albumin, globulins, fibrinogen), and activates vitamin D, showcasing its role in metabolism and homeostasis.

Gallbladder Anatomy and Function

The gallbladder is a pear-shaped sac located on the posterior surface of the liver, responsible for storing and concentrating bile until needed for digestion.

Upon stimulation, smooth muscle contractions eject bile into the cystic duct, facilitating the digestion of fats in the small intestine.

The gallbladder's ability to concentrate bile enhances its effectiveness in emulsifying fats, which is crucial for lipid digestion.

Small Intestine Structure and Function

Gross Anatomy of the Small Intestine

The small intestine is divided into three regions: the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum, each with distinct roles in digestion and absorption.

The duodenum is the shortest region (approximately 12 finger widths long) and is C-shaped, connecting to the stomach at the pyloric sphincter.

The jejunum is about 1 meter long and extends from the duodenum to the ileum, playing a significant role in nutrient absorption.

The ileum is the longest section (approximately 2 meters) and connects to the large intestine at the ileocecal sphincter, completing the digestive process.

Histology of the Small Intestine

The small intestine's mucosa is highly specialized for nutrient absorption, featuring microvilli, villi, and circular folds that increase surface area.

Goblet cells within the mucosa secrete mucus, while intestinal glands (crypts of Lieberkühn) produce intestinal juice, aiding in digestion.

Paneth cells secrete lysozyme and have phagocytic capabilities, contributing to the immune defense of the intestinal lining.

Enteroendocrine cells secrete hormones such as secretin and cholecystokinin (CCK), which regulate digestive processes and pancreatic juice secretion.

Digestion and Absorption in the Small Intestine

The small intestine is the primary site for digestion and absorption, with approximately 90% of nutrients and water being absorbed here.

Mechanical digestion occurs through segmentation and peristalsis, mixing chyme with digestive juices and propelling it through the intestine.

Chemical digestion involves enzymes from pancreatic juice and brush-border enzymes that break down carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids into absorbable units.

Nutrient absorption occurs via active transport and simple diffusion, with specific mechanisms for vitamins and electrolytes, ensuring efficient nutrient uptake.

Large Intestine Structure and Function

Gross Anatomy of the Large Intestine

The large intestine, or colon, is responsible for the absorption of water, ions, and vitamins, as well as the formation and storage of feces.

It consists of several parts, including the cecum, colon (ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid), rectum, and anal canal, each contributing to its overall function.

Histology of the Large Intestine

The large intestine has a simpler structure compared to the small intestine, with no circular folds or villi, but it contains microvilli for absorption.

The wall consists of four layers, with a predominance of absorptive cells and goblet cells that secrete mucus for lubrication.

Longitudinal muscle is modified into teniae coli, which contract to form haustra, allowing for efficient movement and storage of contents.

Functions of the Large Intestine

The large intestine performs haustral churning, peristalsis, and mass peristalsis to drive contents toward the rectum for eventual elimination.

Bacteria in the large intestine play a crucial role in fermenting undigested carbohydrates, producing gases, and synthesizing certain vitamins (e.g., B vitamins and vitamin K).

The large intestine absorbs remaining water and electrolytes, transforming chyme into feces, which consists of water, inorganic salts, sloughed-off cells, bacteria, and undigested materials.

Homeostasis and Gastrointestinal Disorders

Homeostasis in the Digestive System

The digestive system maintains homeostasis through various feedback mechanisms, ensuring proper nutrient absorption and waste elimination.

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) occurs when the lower esophageal sphincter fails to close, leading to acid reflux and irritation of the esophagus.

Diarrhea is characterized by increased frequency and fluid content of feces, often due to increased intestinal motility and decreased absorption.

Constipation results from decreased motility and difficulty in defecation, often managed through dietary changes and hydration.

Impact of Antibiotics on Gut Flora

Antibiotics can disrupt the normal gastrointestinal bacterial flora, leading to digestive issues and potential nutrient malabsorption.

Some individuals may experience diarrhea as a side effect of antibiotic treatment, affecting overall gut health.

The appendix may serve as a reservoir for beneficial bacteria, helping to repopulate the gut flora after antibiotic use.

Discussion questions1 of 6

What are the primary functions of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, and how do they contribute to overall digestion?

Difficulty: Easy

How do the accessory organs of the digestive system, such as the liver and pancreas, support the digestive processes?

Difficulty: Medium

Discuss the significance of gastric juice composition in the stomach's digestive processes.

Difficulty: Medium

Analyze the role of the small intestine in nutrient absorption and the mechanisms involved.

Difficulty: Hard

Evaluate the impact of the autonomic nervous system on the functions of the gastrointestinal tract.

Difficulty: Hard

What are the consequences of imbalances in the digestive system, such as GERD and constipation, on overall health?

Difficulty: Medium

Show example answer

The primary functions of the GI tract include ingestion, secretion, mixing and propulsion, digestion, absorption, and defecation. Each function plays a crucial role in breaking down food, absorbing nutrients, and eliminating waste, thereby ensuring the body receives the necessary energy and materials for survival.

Accessory organs like the liver and pancreas produce essential substances such as bile and pancreatic juice, which aid in the emulsification of fats and the breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids. Their secretions create an optimal environment for enzymatic activity, enhancing the efficiency of digestion and nutrient absorption in the small intestine.

Gastric juice, composed of hydrochloric acid, pepsinogen, intrinsic factor, and gastric lipase, is vital for digestion. Hydrochloric acid creates an acidic environment that activates pepsinogen to pepsin for protein digestion, while intrinsic factor is essential for vitamin B12 absorption, highlighting the multifaceted role of gastric juice in digestive health.

The small intestine is the primary site for nutrient absorption, utilizing structures like villi and microvilli to increase surface area. Mechanisms such as active transport, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis enable the efficient uptake of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and minerals, ensuring that the body receives essential nutrients from digested food.

The autonomic nervous system, comprising the enteric and autonomic divisions, regulates GI tract functions through neural reflex pathways that influence motility and secretion. Parasympathetic stimulation enhances digestive activity by promoting secretion and motility, while sympathetic stimulation can inhibit these processes, demonstrating the delicate balance required for optimal digestive function.

Imbalances like GERD and constipation can lead to significant health issues, including discomfort, nutrient malabsorption, and decreased quality of life. GERD results from improper sphincter function, causing acid reflux and irritation, while constipation can lead to fecal impaction and associated complications, underscoring the importance of maintaining digestive health.

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