3.2.1.5.1 Antarctica as a global common

How large is antarctica, how much of it is ice (compared to global) and how much of global freshwater is it

14million km, 99% glacial ice (nunataks aren’t), 90% world’s ice, 70% global freshwater

Section of Antarctica, average hight (with mountain height), winds

East Antarctica (greater area) and West Antarctica separated by Transarctic mountains, average height 2,300m, Mount Vinson 4,892 metres, kabatic winds 200mph

Why is it known as a polar desert

Annual precipitation <50mm

Antarctic conevrgence

Cold Southern Ocean water sinks below warm water to create highly productive marine zone

Threats to antartica

Climate change, Fishing/whaling, Mineral resources, Tourism/scientific research

Climate change in Antarctica threat

Peninsula has warmed by 3C in the last 50 years, with the Thwaites Glacier at risk of collapsing to rise sea levels by 63cm. Positive feedback loops from albedo created and ocean acidification is caused by the South ocean absorbing 30% atmospheric co2

Examples of wildlife affected in climate change

Adeline penguins declining due to need for stable ice to breed, invasive plant species colonise

Fishing/whaling threat

200,000 tonnes of Krill harvested annually could causes food chain failure for seals/penguins. Illegal fishing such as 24% of Patagonian Toothfish was illegally harvested in 2004.

Mineral resources threat

antarctica contains vast deposits of coal, iron, oil. Mining infrastructure would destroy habitats and an oil spill would not decompose for decades.

Tourism/scientific research threat

120,000 annual tourists create ‘honeyspots’ where plants/animals are disturbed. MS explorer crash left a mile long fuel spill. 82 research stations pollute with waste and chemicals. Infrastructure development like the 1,000 mile long US ‘Ice Highway’

Protection treaties/projects for Antarctica

Antarctic Treaty, Madrid Protocol, International Whaling Commission, UN agencies

Antarctic Treaty and features

Ensured peaceful purposes, freedom of scientific research and froze territorial claims. All areas open for unannounced site inspections with personal acting under home nation jurisdiction

Antarctic Treaty evaluation

Successful international agreement with 60+ years of peace. Unanimous consensus means 1 country can veto protection, no hard legal penalties

Madrid Protocol and features

Viewed Antarctica as a nature reserve for peace/science and banned all mining. EIA means activities are assessed to mitigate environmental damage

Madrid protocol evaluation

Fully comprehensive ‘umbrella’. Subject to review in 2048, EIA more administrative (allowed Ice Highway)

International Whaling Commission and features

Suspended all commercial whaling to conserve whale stocks, Southern Ocean Sanctuary prohibits whaling for 50million km

International Whaling Commission evaluation

Effectively ended large scale commercial whaling. Voluntary with Japan leaving without penalty, loophole of ‘scientific research’

Role of UN agencies and features

UNEP coordinates and promotes policies relating to climate change

UN agencies evaluation

Work on projects like Paris agreement project that indirectly protects Antarctica. Little direct influence as legislation does not cover Antarctica.

Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition (ASOC) NGO

Observer status of the ATCMs to allow monitoring and a unified voice. Coalition of 30 NGOs like Greenpeace

Roles of NGOs with examples

Guardians/Watchdogs of ATS (blocked a scheme for the Madrid protocol), Technical/Scientific advisers, Partners in conservation (Ross Sea MPA), Visionaries/Long term strategies (World Park Antarctica)

Methods of NGOs

Independent data collection to validate government, Review Environment Evaluations (Ice Highway), Direct monitoring (Sea Shepheard Conservation Society monitor whaling)

Evaluation of NGOs

No legal enforcement power, unanimous consensus reduce influence, limited by donor priorities/resource access

Impact of global governance on Antarctica

Political stability/peace, Primary industry of science, Environmental regulation

Impact of global governance on places elsewhere with examples

Climate regulation through heat sink, Sea level management (6 metre sea level rise if melting, 70% worlds freshwater), Marine sustainability (krill for food security)

Impact of global governance on citizens

Educational/knowledge benefits from science, Long term resource security, Security/safety by preventing war, Economic opportunities like extreme tourism