APES Unit 5 (CED 4)

Core

Dense mass of solid nickel, iron, and radioactive elements that release massive amounts of heat

Mantle

Liquid layer of magma surrounding core, kept liquified by intense heat from core

Asthenosphere

Solid, flexible outer layer of mantle, beneath the lithosphere

Lithosphere

Thin, brittle layer of rock floating on top of mantle (broken up into tectonic plates)

Crust

Very outer layer of the lithosphere, Earth’s surface

1. Core

2. Mantle

3. Asthenosphere

4. Lithosphere

5. Crust

(Cora Made A Little Cake)

The order of the Earth’s layers, from inside —> outside

• Mid-oceanic ridges

• Volcanoes

• Seafloor spreading

• Rift valleys (on land)

Divergent plate boundaries form…

Subduction

Convergent plate boundaries cause…

• Mountains

• Island arcs

• Earthquakes

• Volcanoes

Convergent plate boundaries form…

Earthquakes

Transform plate boundaries form…

• Island arcs

• Off-shore trenches

Oceanic-Oceanic Convergence forms…

Oceanic, because it’s rich in basalt

Which type of crust is denser: oceanic or continental?

The older (and therefore denser) one

If two crusts are the same type and converge, which crust would subduct?

Oceanic

In Oceanic-Continental Convergence, which one subducts?

• Coastal mountains (ex. Andes)

• Volcanic arcs

• Trenches

• Tsunamis

Oceanic-Continental Convergence forms…

Geological uplift (ex. Himalayas)

Continental-Continental Convergence causes…

Ring of Fire

Pattern of volcanoes all around the Pacific plate

Hotspots

Areas of especially hot magma rising up to the lithosphere

Mid-ocean islands (ex. Iceland, Hawaii)

Hotspots form…

Regulating ecosystem service

Soil filters rainwater, and the filtered water ends up as groundwater in aquifers. In this case, soil is providing a…

Supporting ecosystem service

Soil provides a habitat for organisms such as earthworms, fungi, bacteria, mold, and slugs. In this case, soil is providing a…

Humus

The main organic part of soil; broken-down biomass like leaves, dead animals, waste, etc.

• Ammonium

• Phosphates

• Nitrates

Nutrients found in soil

Weathering

The breakdown of rocks into smaller pieces

• Physical

• Biological

• Chemical

Types of weathering

• Wind

• Rain

• Freezing/thawing of ice

Causes of physical weathering

Tree roots

Cause of biological weathering

• Acid rain

• Acids from mosses/lichens

Causes of chemical weathering

Erosion

The transport/movement of weathered rock fragments by wind and rain

Weathering of rocks (parent material)

Soil is formed by the…

Humus

Breakdown of organic matter adds _______ to soil

Increased breakdown of organic matter

Warmer climate =

More weathering, erosion, and deposition

More precipitation =

• Bacteria

• Fungi

• Worms

Examples of soil organisms that break down organic matter

1. O-Horizon

2. A-Horizon

3. B-Horizon

4. C-Horizon

(Oh, A Bear Cub!)

The order of soil horizons, from top —> bottom

O-Horizon

Layer of organic matter (plant roots, dead leaves, animal waste, etc.) on top of soil

1. Provides nutrients

2. Limits water loss to evaporation

2 characteristics of the O-Horizon

A-Horizon (aka topsoil)

Layer of humus and minerals from parent material

The A-Horizon

Which soil horizon has the most biological activity?

B-Horizon (aka subsoil)

Lighter layer below topsoil, mostly made of minerals with little to no organic matter

C-Horizon

Least weathered soil that is closest to the parent material, sometimes called bedrock

Soil degradation

The loss of the ability of soil to support plant growth

Tilling

Turning soil for agriculture

1. Tilling

2. Loss of vegetation

2 causes of loss of topsoil

• Dried out soil

• Removal of nutrients and soil organisms that recycle nutrients

Loss of topsoil causes…

Compaction

Compression of soil by heavy machines (tractors, bulldozers, etc.), grazing livestock, and humans

Reduced porosity, leading to dry soil

Compaction causes…

• Less plant growth

• Less root structure

• Erodes more easily

Characteristics of dry soil

Nutrient depletion

Repeatedly growing crops on the same soil, removing key nutrients (N, P, K, Na, Mg) over time

Desertification

Nutrient depletion causes…

1. Sand

2. Silt

3. Clay

The order of particle sizes, from largest —> smallest

Soil texture

The percentage of sand, silt, and clay in a soil; always adds up to 100%

Porosity

The amount of pore space (the space between particles) a soil has

The larger the particle size, the higher the porosity, and vice versa

Soil texture/porosity rule

More porous/higher porosity (easier for water + air to enter)

More sand in a soil =

Less porous/less porosity (harder for water + air to enter)

More clay in a soil =

Permeability

How easily water drains through a soil

More permeable/high permeability

More porous/high porosity =

Positive

There is a(n) ______ relationship between porosity and permeability.

• High porosity

• High permeability

Porosity and permeability of sand

• Medium porosity

• Medium permeability

Porosity and permeability of silt

• High porosity

• Low permeability

Porosity and permeability of clay

H₂O holding capacity

How well water is retained/held by a soil

Lower H₂O holding capacity

More porous/permeable =

Inverse

There is a(n) ______ relationship between porosity/permeability and H₂O holding capacity.

Loam

Ideal soil for most plant growth

Soil fertility

The ability of soil to support plant growth

Leachate

Liquid that contains toxic metals/juices found in landfills

Contaminated soil and groundwater

Leachate causes…

N, P, K⁺, Mg²⁺, Ca⁺, Na⁺

Nutrients found in soil

• Organic matter- releases nutrients

• Humus- holds and releases nutrients

• Decomposer activity- recycles nutrients

• Clay- negative charge binds positive nutrients

• Bases (pH 7-14) (calcium carbonate, aka limestone)

Factors that increase soil nutrients

• Acids- leach positive charge nutrients

• Excessive rain/irrigation- leaches nutrients

• Excessive farming- depletes nutrients

• Topsoil erosion

Factors that decrease soil nutrients

• Aerated soil (biological activity)

• Compost/humus/organic matter

• Clay content

• Root structure, especially natives

Factors that increase H₂O holding capacity

• Compacted soil (machines, cows)

• Topsoil erosion

• Sand

• Root loss

Factors that decrease H₂O holding capacity

78%

Percentage of nitrogen in the Earth’s atmosphere

Nitrogen

The most abundant gas in the Earth’s atmosphere; mostly in the form of N₂, so it’s unusable to plants without nitrogen fixation

21%

Percentage of oxygen in the Earth’s atmosphere

Oxygen

A gas produced by photosynthesis in plants and is needed for human/animal respiration

.93%

Percentage of argon in the Earth’s atmosphere

Argon

An insert noble gas (unable to react with other elements) found in the Earth’s atmosphere

0-4% (varies by region and conditions)

Percentage of water vapor in the Earth’s atmosphere

Water vapor

A greenhouse gas the cycles through the atmosphere quickly

.04%

Percentage of carbon dioxide in the Earth’s atmosphere

Carbon dioxide

The most abundant greenhouse gas; can be removed by photosynthesis

1. Nitrogen

2. Oxygen

3. Argon

4. Water vapor

5. Carbon dioxide

(Nachos On A Wet Counter)

The order of gasses in the Earth’s atmosphere, from most abundant —> least abundant

Exosphere

The outermost layer of the atmosphere; where the atmosphere merges with space

Thermosphere

The hottest layer of the atmosphere (remember: therm); absorbs harmful x-rays and UV radiation; contains the aurora borealis

Mesosphere

The middle layer of the atmosphere (remember: meso = middle); 60-80 km

Stratosphere

The second layer of the atmosphere (s for second); 16-60 km; thickest ozone (O₃) layer is found here; absorbs UV-B and UV-C rays, which cause cancer (s for sunscreen)

Troposphere

The layer of the atmosphere where weather occurs (remember: tropo = change); 0-16 km; most dense due to the pressure of the other layers above it; most of the atmosphere’s gas molecules are found here; O₃ is dangerous here

Smog

In the troposphere, O₃ can form…

1. Troposphere

2. Stratosphere

3. Mesosphere

4. Thermosphere

5. Exosphere

(The Smart Man Takes the Elevator)

The order of the layers of the atmosphere, from closest to the Earth —> furthest from the Earth

Increases; absorption of highly energetic solar radiation

As you go up in the thermosphere, temperature ______ due to ______.

3,100°F

Highest/hottest temperature in the thermosphere (and Earth)

Decreases; the decrease in density, leaving fewer molecules to absorb sun

As you go up in the mesosphere, temperature ______ due to ______.

-150°F

Lowest/coldest temperature in the mesosphere (and Earth)

Increases; the top layer of stratosphere being warmed by UV rays (like a pool)

As you go up in the stratosphere, temperature ______ due to ______.

Decreases; air getting further from the warmth of the Earth’s surface (diminishing strength of the Greenhouse Effect)

As you go up in the troposphere, temperature ______ due to ______.

1. Energy/heat from sunlight

2. Density properties of air

3. Rotation of the Earth (Coriolis Effect)

3 causes/reasons for atmospheric circulation

• Warm air rises, cool air sinks

• Warm air holds more moisture than cold

  • Cold air with moisture would condense into rain

• Rising air expands and cools

Properties of air