AP World | Chapter 31 | Societies at Crossroads

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Ottoman Empire

A major Islamic empire that reached its peak in the late seventeenth century.

Janissaries

Elite military corps in the Ottoman Empire known for their involvement in palace intrigue.

Capitulations

Agreements exempting Europeans from Ottoman law, allowing extraterritoriality.

Sultan Selim III

Ottoman Sultan (r. 1789–1807) who attempted to reform the military.

Sultan Mahmud II

Ottoman Sultan (r. 1808–1839) who also attempted military and administrative reforms.

Tanzimat

Period of reorganization in the Ottoman Empire from 1839 to 1876, aimed at reform.

Young Turks

A political reform movement in the late Ottoman Empire calling for modernization and secularism.

Ottoman Society for Union and Progress

Organization founded by exiled Ottomans in Paris advocating for rapid reforms.

Abdül Hamid II

Ottoman sultan (r. 1876–1909) who initially adopted a constitution but later suspended it.

Crimean War

Conflict (1853-1856) where Russia attempted to expand into Ottoman territories.

Emancipation of the Serfs

The freeing of serfs by Tsar Alexander II in 1861, leading to continued rural poverty.

Count Sergei Witte

Minister of Finance (1892–1903) who promoted industrialization in Russia.

Trans-Siberian Railroad

Major railroad project in Russia aimed at improving transportation and trade.

Intelligentsia

Educated elites in Russia advocating for social change; often faced repression.

Terrorism in Russia

The assassination of Tsar Alexander II by radical groups prompting increased governmental repression.

Opium War

Conflict between Britain and China (1839-1842) over trade imbalances and opium.

Treaty of Nanjing

The 1842 treaty ending the Opium War, ceding Hong Kong to Britain and opening ports.

Taiping Rebellion

A massive civil war in China (1850-1864) led by Hong Xiuquan aimed at addressing social injustices.

Self-Strengthening Movement

Chinese effort (1860-1895) to adopt Western technology while maintaining traditional culture.

Spheres of Influence

Regions in China where foreign powers had exclusive rights and privileges.

Boxer Rebellion

Anti-foreign uprising in China (1899-1901) supported by Empress Dowager Cixi.

Meiji Restoration

Revolution in 1868 marking the beginning of modernization and westernization in Japan.

Constitutional Government in Japan

Political reforms instituted in Japan under the Meiji, culminating in a new constitution in 1889.

Zaibatsu

Large financial and industrial conglomerates in Japan, developed during economic reforms.

Young Ottoman Movement

A faction within the Ottoman Empire advocating for reforms and constitutional government.

Censorship

Government suppression of information and expression, especially under Tsarist Russia.

Socialism

Political and economic theory advocating for communal ownership and egalitarianism.

Merchants and Artisans

Local producers in the Ottoman Empire affected by foreign competition.

Military Retaliation

British military response to Chinese enforcement of the opium ban, leading to the Opium War.

Population Growth

Increase in Chinese population during the 19th century, leading to land and food scarcity.

Conscript Army

Military force created under the Meiji Restoration, replacing the samurai mercenaries.

Extraterritorial Status

Legal immunity granted to foreign nationals in China, limiting Chinese jurisdiction.

Sultan

Title for the sovereign leader of the Ottoman Empire.

Urban Riots

Civil disturbances in the Ottoman Empire caused by economic stress on local artisans and workers.

Corruption

Misuse of power and funds within the Ottoman administration contributing to decline.

Radical Change

Drastic reforms sought by elements of the Young Turks and Chinese reformers.

Nationalism

Political ideology that emerged in various empires, pushing for self-determination and autonomy.

Abolition of Private Property

A key demand of the Taiping Rebellion seeking communal wealth and resources.