The impact of Henry VI and Margaret of Anjou on the governance of England, 1449-61

Why was the period 1449–61 particularly disastrous?

England suffered military defeats in France, political instability, factional conflict, and the king’s mental breakdown, all worsened by tensions between Henry VI, Margaret of Anjou, and Richard of York.

Why was Richard, Duke of York important?

From 1447–1453, he was heir apparent to the throne and a major political and military figure.

How did Margaret of Anjou treat Richard of York?

Chroniclers claim she tried to isolate him from power and prevent him influencing government.

Which faction did Margaret support at court?

The dukes of Somerset and Suffolk, York’s main rivals.

Why did Margaret oppose York’s influence?

Historians believe she wanted to discourage further war with France and supported a pro-French policy.

What role did Margaret allegedly play in York’s removal from France?

She was accused of influencing Henry to replace York with Somerset as military commander.

Why did suspicion of Margaret increase after Somerset’s appointment?

Somerset oversaw major defeats in the Hundred Years War, strengthening claims Margaret excluded York deliberately.

Why did Margaret’s popularity decline (1450–53)?

Ongoing defeats in France and her association with Somerset and Suffolk.

Why was Margaret criticised before 1453?

She had no children, leaving uncertainty over the succession.

Why was Prince Edward’s birth problematic despite being a male heir?

Henry VI was mentally incapacitated and unable to recognise his son.

Why was Henry VI’s mental illness a major issue?

It created uncertainty over who should govern the realm.

What did Margaret reportedly demand during Henry’s illness?

She argued she should govern as regent.

Why did Parliament reject Margaret as regent?

Due to her gender, foreign nationality, and association with the unpopular Somerset faction.

What happened in March 1454?

Richard of York was appointed Protector and Defender of the Realm.

Why did Margaret fear York’s appointment as Protector?

She worried he would try to disinherit Prince Edward.

What did York do to Somerset during his protectorship?

He imprisoned him, further isolating Margaret.

Why was Henry VI’s recovery in Christmas 1454 important?

It restored royal authority and relieved Margaret politically and personally.

What happened in February 1455?

York was removed as Protector of the Realm.

What triggered the First Battle of St Albans?

Renewed factional conflict between Yorkists and supporters of Somerset and the queen.

What was the result of the First Battle of St Albans?

Yorkist victory; Somerset was killed and labelled a traitor, and the king was captured.

How did the Yorkists justify their actions after St Albans?

They claimed loyalty to Henry VI and blamed “evil councillors.”

What happened on 25 May 1455?

A staged ceremony reinstated Henry as king and showed Yorkist loyalty.

How did Yorkists secure power after St Albans?

They filled key roles with supporters, including Warwick as Captain of Calais.

Why was York reinstated as Protector in November 1455?

Henry’s health declined again.

How did Margaret respond to York’s power?

She remained hostile and worked to undermine him.

What weakness did historian Anthony Pollard identify in York?

He failed to fully eliminate Lancastrian supporters when in power.

What happened by February 1456?

Lancastrian supporters ensured York was removed as Protector.

What was Loveday?

A public reconciliation ceremony between Lancastrians and Yorkists in London.

Why was Loveday ineffective?

It was symbolic, short-lived, and reflected Henry’s impractical idealism.- both sides prepared for war again after

What happened at Ludford Bridge?

York’s forces fled after facing a larger royal army causing York and his allies into exile.

Why must sources on Margaret of Anjou be treated cautiously?

Most 15th-century chronicles are hostile, portraying her as ‘unnatural’ for ruling over her husband and many were written to support Yorkist claims to the throne after 1461.

Why is it unlikely that Margaret alone could have determined government policy in the late 1450s?

Margaret did not command military support in her own right, making it improbable that she could single-handedly influence key policy decisions, even with a weak king. Instead, she acted as a focal point for opposition to York, providing a figurehead around whom anti-Yorkist forces could rally.

What is the historical debate surrounding Margaret’s intentions toward Richard of York before 1459?

Traditionally, Margaret and York have been seen as sworn enemies. However, recent research suggests she may have attempted to adopt the traditional female role of peacemaker to gain wider support. The 1458 Loveday processions may have been initiated by Margaret as much as Henry, indicating a possible attempt at reconciliation rather than confrontation.

What was the political situation by 1459 despite the Loveday processions?

Regardless of Margaret’s involvement in Loveday, by 1459 relations had completely broken down again, with Lancastrians and Yorkists fiercely opposed and preparing for renewed conflict.

What was the Parliament of Devils (1459), and what actions did it take?

After York fled to Ireland, a Lancastrian-dominated parliament met at Coventry. Known as the ‘Parliament of Devils’, it condemned York, Warwick and Salisbury to death in their absence, fully disinherited them and their heirs, and took severe revenge against Yorkist leaders.

To what extent can Margaret be blamed for the harshness of the Parliament of Devils?

Historians such as John A. Wagner have viewed the parliament as an act of personal vengeance by the queen. However, even if Margaret played a central role, she had strong support from many Lancastrian followers. The parliament also required all lords to recognise Prince Edward as Henry VI’s heir and swear loyalty to him.

Why did the actions of the Coventry parliament ultimately backfire?

The severity of the measures radicalised Yorkist supporters and strengthened their determination to regain control. York gained substantial military backing in Ireland, while Warwick’s influence ensured access to significant armed support.

How did the Yorkists regain the initiative in 1460?

Warwick and Edward of March invaded England in June 1460, landing in Kent. They defeated Lancastrian forces led by the queen and Prince Edward at the Battle of Northampton on 10 July, claiming loyalty to Henry VI and presenting themselves as opponents only of his ‘evil councillors’.

Why was York’s behaviour after September 1460 politically significant?

York delayed joining his allies until September and then began openly claiming the throne. This marked a decisive escalation, transforming the conflict from opposition to royal advisers into a direct challenge to Henry VI’s kingship.

What was the Act of Accord (1460), and why was it disastrous for Margaret?

The Act of Accord recognised Henry VI as king but disinherited Prince Edward, naming Richard of York as heir. This was a major blow to Margaret, as it removed her son’s claim to the throne.

How did the Lancastrians respond to the Act of Accord?

Margaret and Prince Edward regrouped in Yorkshire. A large Lancastrian force surprised York at Sandal Castle and killed him on 30 December 1460. His head was displayed on York’s city walls wearing a paper crown to mock his royal ambitions.

Why did Margaret’s victory over York prove short-lived?

Leadership of the Yorkist cause passed to Edward of March, who proved highly capable and determined. A series of battles followed in 1461.

What was the significance of the Battle of Towton (29 March 1461)?

Towton was the decisive Yorkist victory of the Wars of the Roses. It led to Edward of March being declared King Edward IV and forced Henry VI, Margaret of Anjou and Prince Edward into exile in Scotland.