AP Psych Units 5-6

Divergent Thinking

A cognitive process used to generate creative, non-linear ideas by exploring multiple varied solutions rather than a single answer to a problem.

Convergent Thinking

A cognitive process that focuses on narrowing down multiple ideas or possibilities to find the single, best, most logical solution to a problem.

Creativity

The ability to produce ideas, solutions, or products that are both naval (original, unique) and valuable (useful, meaningful). Involves both divergent and convergent thinking.

Functional Fixedness

A cognitive bias that limits a person to only use an object in the way that it is traditionally used/made for.

Trial & Error

A adaptive problem solving strategy for learning which involves eliminating mistakes until a correct answer is discovered through experience.

Algorithm

A type of problem solving strategy which includes step-by-step procedures that provide the correct answer to a particular problem.

Insight

A type of problem solving strategy which occurs when a solution to a problem presents itself quickly and without warning; the sudden discovery of a solution based on trial and error (an “a ha” moment).

Intelligence

The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, & use knowledge to adapt

IQ

A number. Measured by your mental age/chronological age times 100

Insight (Crystallized Intelligence)

The ability to gain knowledge and skills from experience (increases with age).

Insight (Fluid Intelligence)

The ability to solve new problems, reason, and think in abstract ways (decreases with age).

The Flynn Effect

The increases in fluid and crystallized intelligence; observations detailing that IQ test scores have gradually increased about 3 points every 10 years, across generations.

Standardization

Establishes consistent procedures & norms for a test.

Achievement Tests

Assessments testing what you’ve already learned.

Aptitude

Assessments that measure potential to learn or perform in the future.

G-Factor

A factor that contributes to mental ability; your general ability/mental capacity to do something. (i.e. those who excel in tests often have an underlying, preexisting intelligence).

IQ Tests (Validity)

A test’s ability to measure what it needs to; the accuracy of it. (i.e. An IQ test measures intelligence).

IQ Tests (Reliability)

A tests consistency over time/across different observations. (i.e. A test that produces similar results across multiple administrations).

“80th Percentile” (Percentile Rank)

Having scored better than 80% of test takers.

Approach/Approach

When a person understands that there are two desirable outcomes/goals when conflicted.

Avoidance/Avoidance

When a person has to choose between two undesirable goals/outcomes.

Approach/Avoidance

When a goal has both a desirable AND undesirable outcome.

The Hypothalamus

The part of the brain that regulates hunger, thirst, body temperature, etc; maintains homeostasis.

Ghrelin

The hormone that sends signals of hunger to the brain.

Leptin

The hormone that sends signals of fullness to the brain.

The Pituitary Gland

A part in the Endocrine System that releases hormones to control other glands.

Bulimia

A eating disorder characterized by consuming large amounts of food with little control, binge eating. Followed by extreme measures to avoid weight gain; purging (i.e. throwing up, fasting, misuse of laxatives).

Anorexia

A psychiatric disorder characterized by an extreme fear of weight gain, leading to severely low body weight, extreme food restrictions, distorted body image.

What happens due to sleep deprivation?

Cortisol

A hormone released during stressful moments which increases Ghrelin. (Explanation for why stress leads to eating more).

Drive Reduction Theory

The theory that people are motivated to reduce discomfort and return to balance (homeostasis).

The Biggest Motivators in Life

Sexy Time, Hunger, Thirst, Sleep

Goldilocks Principle

The principle stating that people are motivated most when a task is the right level of difficulty.

Homeostasis

The body’s tendency to maintain a stable internal state (balance).

Traits

A pattern of behavior of feeling/acting in a certain way; a characterization of a person.

Personality Inventory

À type of assessment designed to measure personality traits/behaviors.

Big 5 Personality Factors

Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism

Openness (O.C.E.A.N.)

The personality trait describing abstract thinking, curiosity. Those who score higher tend to be more imaginative and spontaneous, instead of being inflexible and close-minded.

Conscientiousness (O.C.E.A.N.)

The personality trait describing competence, order, planning, discipline. Those who score higher tend to be more organized and careful, instead of impulsive and disorganized

Extraversion (O.C.E.A.N.)

The personality trait describing sociability, outgoingness, excitement-seeking. Those who score higher tend to be more sociable and outgoing, instead of being reserved and thoughtful.

Agreeableness (O.C.E.A.N.)

The personality trait describing empathy, trustworthiness of others. Those who score high tend to be more trusting and helpful, instead of being skeptical, suspicious, or uncooperative.

Neuroticism (O.C.E.A.N.)

The personality trait describing emotional stability, tendency to have negative emotions. Those who score higher tend to be more anxious and pessimistic, instead of being calm and confident.

Factor Analysis

A statistical method use to simplify data by grouping related variables (i.e. crying & sadness grouped into depression).

GAS (General Adaption Syndrome)

The three-stage response the body undergoes under chronic stress. Alarm (flight or flight), Resistance (adaption), Exhaustion (Depletion).

GAD (General Anxiety Disorder).

A chronic mental condition characterized by excessive, uncontrollable worry about everyday life events for at least 6 months.

Top Down Processing

When your brain interprets info using prior knowledge.

Bottom-Up Processing

When your brain builds understanding starting with raw inputs (i.e. 4 legged animal = dog).

Raw Materials

Basic pieces of sensory information your brain receives from the environment (Bottom-Up Processing).

Classical Conditioning

The conditioning where two things are like together causing a trigger to create a response (UCR & UCS, CR & CS); acquisition.

Classical Conditioning: Unconditional Stimulus

A stimulus that naturally triggers a reaction (i.e. food).

Classical Conditioning: Unconditional Response

The automatic reaction to a UCS; a reflex.

Neutral Stimulus

Something that does not cause a response AT FIRST.

Classical Conditioning: Acquisition

When learning has occurred; NS and UCS are paired over and over (i.e. bell+ food).

Classical Conditioning: Conditional Stimulus

The former neutral stimulus that now triggers a response (post acquisition, discovered by Ivan Pavlov).

Classical Conditioning: Conditional Response

The learned response to the CS

Classical Conditioning: Generalization

Responding to similar stimuli in the same way (i.e. CS=7 so you flinch to other numbers)

Classical Conditioning: Discrimination

Learning to respond only to one specific stimulus (i.e. dog only views bell=food, not any other noise).

Classical Conditioning: Spontaneous Recovery

The sudden return of a previously extinct response (occurs after extinction, usually weaker).

Classical Conditioning: Extinction

The CR fading away when the CS is no longer paired with the UCS.

Classical Conditioning: Taste Aversion

Learning to avoid a food after getting sick from it.

Classical Conditioning: One-Trial Conditioning

Learning something after just ONE experience.

Classical Conditioning: Higher Order/Second Order Conditioning

When other things get in the environment get associated (i.e. bell+food=salivating, room light+bell=salivating).

Operant Conditioning

A learning process where behavior is shaped by consequences (developed B.F. Skinner).

Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement

Increases behavior/makes it likely to reoccur.

Operant Conditioning: Punishment

Decreases behavior/makes it less likely to occur.

Operant Conditioning: Law of Effect

Any behavior that is reinforced is likely to reoccur.

Operant Conditioning: Primary Reinforcer

Things that are naturally rewarding without having to learn them.

Operant Conditioning: Secondary Reinforcer

Things that become rewarding after being linked to something else (i.e. good grades = money).

Operant Conditioning: Token Economies

Any system that uses secondary reinforcers to modify behavior (i.e. 10 stickers = a prize).

Operant Conditioning: Positive Reinforcement

When stimulus is presented; responses may increase or decrease.

Operant Conditioning: Negative Reinforcement

When the stimulus is removed in order to increase behavior.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Rules for when behavior gets reinforced, different schedules = different behavior patterns.

Schedules of Reinforcement: Ratio

Behavior based on a number of responses (i.e. do it 5 times = a reward).

Schedules of Reinforcement: Interval

Behavior based on time passed (i.e. do it = reward after 10 minutes).

Schedules of Reinforcement: Fixed

When it is predictable, always the same (i.e. every 3rd click).

Schedules of Reinforcement: Variable

When it is unpredictable, changes often (i.e. ABOUT every 2-3 times).

Schedules of Reinforcement: Fixed Ratio

Reward after a SET number of responses (i.e. sell 5 shirts = a $50 bonus).

Schedules of Reinforcement: Variable Ratio

A reward after an unpredictable number of responses (i.e. gambling = money).

Schedules of Reinforcement: Fixed Interval

A reward after a set amount of time (i.e. every Sunday = allowance).

Schedules of Reinforcement: Variable Interval

A reward after varying amount of time (i.e. checking emails for college acceptances).

Observational Learning

Learning by others and imitating their actions, even without direct rewards or punishments (Coined by Albert Bandura).

Observational Learning: Modeling

The act of demonstrating a behavior that can be imitated by others.

Observational Learning: Mirror Neurons

Brain cells that fire when you perform an action AND observe someone else doing it.

Observational Learning: Reflexively Copying Actions

Automatically mimicking what you see, often without thinking.

Observational Learning: Nervous System Reactions

Watching someone’s actions can trigger physiological responses in your body.

Criticisms of Operant Conditioning: Achievement Motivation

An individual’s internal drive to excel, master skills, and achieve specific, challenging goals (intrinsic and extrinsic motivation).

Criticisms of Operant Conditioning: Intrinsic Motivation

Desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective, not for a reward.

Criticisms of Operant Conditioning: Extrinsic Motivation

A desire to perform a behavior due to promises rewards or threats of punishment.

Criticisms of Operant Conditioning: Over Justification Effect

Desired behavior or once enjoyable behavior is no longer enjoyable; reward diminishes desire.

Cognitive Maps

A mental representation humans use to understand, navigate, and structure their environments (i.e. learning the layout of your school).

Latent Learning

The process of acquiring new information/skill without immediate reinforcement or conscious effort (hidden learning).

Biological Preparedness

The concept that organisms are evolutionarily predisposed to learn some associations more readily than others.

Instinctive Drift

The tendency to abandon learned/conditioned behaviors in favor of natural, instinctual behaviors.

Encoding

One of the steps of memory where you get info into your system/brain.

Storage

One of the steps to memory where you PUT info somewhere.

Retrieval

One of the steps of memory where you bring info out of storage into consciousness.

Sensory Input

Involves the 5 senses, when raw information is entering your brain following external events; encoding.

Sensory Memory

The first stage of memory that holds the sensory inputs/raw information from your environments. It’s duration (how long the info stays in that system) is short and is often gone if you aren’t paying atttention.

Sensory Memory: Iconic Memory

A type of sensory memory for sight; holds a brief image (VERY short duration).

Sensory Memory: Echoic Memory

A type of sensory memory for sound; holds what you just hear (short duration but longer than iconic).