biology higher unit 2- cellular respiration

cellular respiration def

series of meta pathways which is the release of energy from food and the regeneration of atp

glycolysis

in cytoplasm , glucose being broken down into pyruvate.
series of enzyme-controlled steps.

first energy investment phase where compounds are phosphorylated using ATP and glucose turning into adp and glucose 6 phosphate, two atp used.
The second half is an energy pay-off phase where 4 ATP is produced. dehydrogen enzyme remove h+ and electrons to pass to coenzyme nad to form nadh then those get passed to electron transport chain.

P.I.P.E.D

CITRIC ACID CYCLE

in the matrix of the mitochondria.
Each pyruvate is broken down into a 2-carbon acetyl group and carbon dioxide is released.
Each acetyl group combines with coenzyme A to form acetyl coenzyme A. the acetyl group of it combines with oxaloacetate to form citrate. during enzyme controlled steps citrate converts back into oxaloacetate while producing co2 and atp from adp,
During this, H+ ions and electrons are released and bind with NAD to form NADH

a.c.e.o.c.o.c.a.n

electron transport chain

group of proteins located on the inner membrane

electrons passed along chain releasing energy.
NADH from the before stages release their electrons to the chains to nad.
This energy is used to pump H+ ions from the matrix to the inter-membrane space.
The return flow of ions drives the production of ATP by ATP Synthase enzymes on the inner membrane. the electrons and h+ combine w o2 to make water

e.n.p.h.f.a.w

fermentation

in abcense of o2, animals- pyruvate converted into lactate- reversible, plants and yeast make ethanol and co2, irreversible. this happens after glycolysis

atp

energy rich compound which can be used to make energy available for cell processes, metabolic pathways can be intergrated w each other so that catabolic pathways release enrgy used to drive anabolics

metabolic rate

quantity consumed per unit of time

how can meta rate be measured

rate of oxygen consumption
-rate of carbon dioxide production
-rate of heat production

orgs w high meta rates mean

they require more efficient delivery of o2 to cells, so more respiration can happen so more energy can be produced for cellular processes

order oh high to low meta rates

birds and animals, reptiles and amphibians, fish

birds and animals

high rate, complete double system meaning no mixing of blood, 2 atria, 2 ventricles, high pressure of blood

amphibians and replates

medium rate, incomplete double, 2 atria, 1 vent, medium pressure

fish

low rate, single system, mixing of blood, 1 atria, 1 vent, low pressure,

what does a complete double circularatory system mean

enables higher rate, no mixing of blood so o2 blood can be pumped more efficiently at higher pressure to cells

what external abiotic factors can affect an organisms metabolic rate?

temp ph salinity

conformers

internal dependent of external, low metabolic cost so they dont have to spend too much energy to maintain a constant inner environment, have narrow eco niche means only suited in enviroment with suitable factors unless they tolerate or resist variation in external environment

regulators

maintain constant internal environment, use metabolism to control internal, increased range of eco niches, requires energy using to acheive homeostasis(constant inter), high meta costs

65676r

Thermoregulation by negative feedback

The thermal receptor cells and the skins thermal receptor cells, monitor the temperature of blood and send nerve impulses to the hypothalamus which send electrical impulses through nerves to factors and then they do the correct response which sets the internal factor to set point

Repo send to increase in body temp

The sweating increases, so the body heat is used to evaporate water in sweat, which goes the skin, vast dilation of blood vessels increase blood flow to skin, so more heat lost by radiation, decreased metabolic rate, so less heat produced

Response to decrease in temp

Shivering so muscle contractions generate heat, vasoconstriction n of blood vessels to give decreased blood so less heat loss by radiation, hair, erector muscles contract, and the hair stand to trap layer of insulating air, increase meta rate more heat produced

Why important to thermoregulate

So mammals and birds can maintain a constant temperature which ensures that their temperature is always the temperature optimal for enzyme activity and high diffusion rates. So high level of metabolism is maintained.

Survive adverse conditions by dormancy

This reduces metabolic rate and heart rate and breathing and temperature to save energy. Predictive dormancy occurs before the adverse conditions and consequential Dormity is after the adverse conditions. One example of this is when it’s winter animals hibernate, and when it’s a drought, they do aestivation This is when the organism remains in the state of with reduced metabolic rate. Daily torpor is period of reduced activity in animals w high rate

Phosphorylation meaning

Enzyme controlled reaction adding phosphate to a molecule like atp and glucose make adp and glucose 6 phosphate

What do dehydrogenase enzyme do

Remove hydrogen ions and electrons to coenzyme nad to make nadh

Migration

Movement by members of same species from one place to another to avoid metabolic adversity, normally place w larger food supply and warmer

Migration type in

Innate is inherited by all members and inflexible

Migration type le

Learned is gained by experience and trial and error and by copying adults

What are the specialised techniques scientists use to find out when migration or where or how long or if they returned for immigration

Leg rings and satellites

Microorganisms

Archea, bacteria and eaukaryotes

How do microorganisms produce large range of products from their meta pathways

Use wide range of substrates

Why are microorganisms easy for research and industry uses

Easy to cultivate they reproduce and grow quickly, food substrate is normally cheap, produce many different useful products, metabolism easily manipulated

How are microorganisms metabolism controlled

Scientist can manipulate their environmental conditions during culture and ensure optimum yield of product

Do micro organisms require during culturing

their growth media needs raw materials for biosynthesis, energy source either from chemical substrate or from the right

Do all microorganisms produce all complex molecules

No some need them to be supplied in their growth media

What are culture conditions

Sterility, temp pH oxygen levels

Why r sterile conditions important

Eliminates contaminants that would affect growth, reduce competition from unwanted organisms for nutrients and reduces spoilage of products

Why control of temp important

Allows optimal enzyme activity and High diffusion rates for high metabolism

Why should u control oxygen levels

To allow high aerobic respiration

How and y should u control ph

By buffers or addition of alkali or acid for optimal enzyme activities

What Is generation time

The time needed for a population to double in number

Lag phase

Little or no increase in cells and they adjust to growth medium and increase metabolic activity and they switch on genes for enzymes to be induced for metabolising new substrates

Log or exponential phase

Cell grow at max rate since nutrients are plentiful and no factor is limiting

Stationary phase

Nutrients begin to run out/toxic metabolites produced, the rate of new cells produce is equal to the death rate of old ones, secondary metabolites produced i.e. antibiotics these metabolites confer an ecological advantage by allowing microorganisms which produce them outcompete other micro organisms

Death phase

Lack of nutrients/concentration of toxic metabolites lead to death phase, so I was dying number exceeds new cells produce number, a total cell count is all cells, viable cell count equal cells only alive. Only viable Cell count shows death phase

How can wild strains of microorganisms be improved

Improving enzyme activity by altering DNA sequences by mutagenesis by uv light or radiation or mutagenic chemicals or recombinant dna technology

What is recombinant dna tech what does it do

used to insert DNA sequences from foreign organisms that can be expressed to produce proteins that allow the microbial cell to make foreign proteins

What is a vector and examples

DNA molecule used to carry foreign genetic information into another cell Ie plasmids or artificial chromosome

Why r artificial chromosomes preferred to plasmids

when larger fragments of foreign DNA are required to be inserted

RegulaTory sequence of vector

Control of gene expression

Restriction site of vector

Contains target sequences of DNA where a specific restriction endonucleases enzyme cuts

Selectable marker Gene

These are antibiotic resistance gene, only cells with the vector will grow

Origin of replication of vector

Control self replication to copy plasmid

Restriction endonuclease enzymes

They cut open plasmid and specific genes out of chromosomes, leaving sticky ends overlapping edges which are produced when the same restriction endonuclease is used to cut open the plasmid and the gene from the chromosome

Ligase

seal the gene into the plasmid.

Recombinant dna technology process

Isolate DNA, Cut with same restriction endonuclease enzyme, mix and a DNA like gays, modified plasmids mixed with bacterial cells, grow this mixture in selective agent aka antibiotics,

Selectable marker genes

These are such as antibiotic resistance genes protect from selective agents such as antibiotics that would kill it or prevent it from going

What do selectable markers genes ensure

Are you sure that only micro organisms that have taken up the vector grow in the presence of the selective agent aka antibiotic

What is a safety mechanism genes do

They introduce genes that prevent the survival of the microorganisms in an external environment

Why r expressing eukaryotes by a prokaryote problematic

It might form an inactive polypeptide since it’s incorrectly folded

Why r recombinant yeast cells used

to produce active forms of the protein which are inactive in bacteria

How to measure oxygen consumption

Respire meters

How to measure carbon dioxide production

Carbon dioxide probes

How to measure heat production

Calorimeter