Unit 2 apes notes:

Module 14: biodiversity of the earth

• Species richness: number of species in a given area

• Species evenness: relative proportion of individuals within the different species in a given area

• Phylogeny: branching pattern of evolutionary relationships

  • tree of evolution

Module 15: How evolution creates biodiversity 

• Evolution: change in the genetic composition of a population over time

• Microevolution: evolution below the species level

  • small changes over short periods of time

• Macroevolution: evolution that gives rise to a new species, genera, families, classes, or phyla

  • larger changes over a long time scale

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• Gene: physical location on the chromosomes within each cell of an organism

• Genotype: complete set of genes in an individual

• Phenotype: set of traits expressed by an individual 

• Mutation: random change in the genetic code produced by a mistake in the copying process

• Recombination: genetic process by which one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosome during reproductive cell division

• Evolution by artificial selection: process in which humans determine which individual breed, typically with a preconceived set of traits in mind

• Evolution by natural selection: process in which environment determines which individuals survive and reproduce

• Fitness: an individual’s ability to survive and reproduce

• Adaptation: trait that improves an individual's fitness

• Gene flow: process by which individuals move from one population to another and thereby alter the genetic  composition of both populations (gene migration)

• Genetic drift: change in the genetic composition of a population over time as a result of random mating (the change in frequency of an existing gene variant in the population due to RANDOM CHANCE)

• Bottleneck effect: reduction in the genetic diversity of a population  caused by a reduction in its size

• Extinction: the death of the last member of a species

• Founder effect: change in the genetic composition of a population as a result of of descending from a small number of colonizing individuals

Module 16

• Geographic isolation: physical separation of a group of individuals from others of the same species

• Allopatric speciation: process of speciation that occurs with geographic isolation (GEOGRAPHY ISOLATION)

• Reproductive isolation: result of two populations within a species evolving separately to the point that they can no longer interbreed and produce viable offspring

• Sympatric speciation: evolution of one species into two, without geographic isolation (SAME geography)

• Genetically modified organized (GMO): an organism that produced by copying genes from a species with with a desirable trait and inserting them into another species

Module 17

• Range of tolerance: the limits to the abiotic conditions

• Fundamental niche: suite of abiotic conditions under which a species can survive, grow, and reproduce

• Realized niche: range of abiotic and biotic conditions under which a species actually lives

 each sister has a diff niche (aesthetic)

• Distributions: areas of the world in which a species lives

• Niche generalists: a species that can live under a wide range of abiotic or biotic conditions

• Niche specialists: a species that is specialized to live in a specific habitat or to feed on a small group of species

• Mass extinction: large extinction of species in a relatively short period of time

Module 18

• Population: the individuals that belong to the same species and live in a given area at a particular time

• Community: all of the populations of organisms within a given area

• Population ecology: the study of factors that cause population to increase or decrease

• Population size (N): the total number of individuals within a defined area at a given time

• Population density: number of individuals per unit area at a given time

• Population distribution: description of how individuals are distributed with respect to one another

• Sex ratio: ratio of males to females in a population

• Age structure: a description of how many individuals fit into particular age categories in a population

• Limiting resource: a resource that a population cannot live without and that occurs in lower quantities than the population would require to increase in size

• Density-dependent factor: factor that influences an individual's probability of survival and reproduction in a manner that depends on the size of the population

• Carrying capacity (K): the limit of how many individuals in a population the environment can sustain

• Density-independent factor: a factor that has the same effect on an individual’s probability of survival and the amount of reproduction at any population size

Module 19

• Population growth models: mathematical equation that can be used to predict population size at any moment in time

• Population growth rate: the number of offspring an individuals can produce in a given time period, minus the deaths of the individuals or its offspring during the same period 

• Intrinsic growth rate (r): maximum potential for growth of a population under ideal conditions with unlimited resources

• Exponential growth model: growth model that estimates a population's future size after a period of time, based on the intrinsic growth rate and the number of reproducing individuals currently in the population

• J-shaped curve: the curve of the exponential growth model when graphed

• Logistic growth model: growth model that describes a population whose growth is initially exponential, but slows as the population approaches the carrying capacity of the environment

• S-shaped curve: shape of the logistic growth model when graphed

• Overshoot: when a population becomes larger than the environment's carrying capacity 

• Die-off: a rapid decline in a population due to death 

• K-selected species: a species with low intrinsic growth rate that causes the population to increase slowly until it reaches carrying capacity

• r-selected species: species that has a high intrinsic growth rate, which often leads to population overshoots and die-offs

• Survivorship curve: graph that represents 

• Type I survivorship curve: pattern of survival over time in which there is high survival throughout most of the life span, but then individuals start to die in large numbers as the approach old age 

• Type II survivorship curve: pattern of survival over tie in which there is a relatively constant decline in survivorship throughout most of the life span

• Type III survivorship curve: pattern of survival over time in which there is low survivorship early in life with few individuals reaching adulthood

• Corridor: strips of natural habitat that connects populations

• Metapopulation: a group of spatially distinct populations that are connected by occasional movements of individuals between them

• Inbreeding depression: when individuals with similar genotypes breed with each other and produce offspring that have an impaired ability to survive and reproduce

Module 20

• Community ecology: the study of interactions between species

• Symbiotic relationship: relationship between two species that live in close association with each other

• Competition: the struggle of individuals to obtain a shared limiting resource

• Competitive exclusion principle: principle stating that two species competing for the same limiting resource cannot coexist

• Resource partitioning: when two species divide a resource based on differences in their behavior or morphology

• Predation: interaction in which one animals typically kills and consumes another animal

• Parasitoid: specialized type of predator that lays eggs inside other organism 

• Parasitism: interaction in which one organism lives on or in another organism

• Pathogen: parasite that causes a disease in its host

• Herbivory: interaction in which an animal consumers a producer

• Mutualism: interaction between two species that increases the chances of survival or reproduction for both species

  • THINK TRICK: muTualism = T for (+/+)

• Commensalism: relationship between species in which ones species benefits and the other species is neither benefited nor harmed

  • THINK TRICK: cOmmensalism = O for (0/+)

• Keystone species: species that is not very abundant but has large effects on an ecological community

• Ecosystem engineer: keystone species that creates or maintains habitat for other species

Module 59

• Threatened species: according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature, species that have a high risk of extinction in the future

• Near threatened species: species that are very likely to become threatened in the future

• Least concern species: species that are widespread and abundant

• Intrinsic value: value independent of any benefit to humans (value even tho not value to human)

  • nature has value in its own right, independent of human use

• instrumental value: worth as an instrument or a tool that can be used to accomplish a goal

• Provision: a good that humans can use directly

Module 60

• Native species: species that live in their historical range, typically where they have lived for thousands or millions of years

• Exotic species: a species living outside its historical range 

• Invasive species: species that spreads rapidly across large areas and causes harm

• Lacey Act: a US act that prohibits interstate shipping of all illegally harvested plants and animals

• Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES): 1973 treaty formed to control the international trade of threatened plants and animals

• Red List: list of worldwide threatened species

Module 61

• Endangered species: species that is in danger of extinction within foreseeable future

• Threatened species: any species that is likely to become an endangered species within foreseeable future

• Convention on biological diversity: an international treaty to help protect biodiversity

• Edge habitat: habitat that occurs where two different communities come together, typically forming an abrupt transition

• Biosphere reserve: protected area consisting of zones that vary in the amount of permissible human impact